Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 2

Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 2

Co-existent with Uranus and Gæa were two mighty powers who were also the

offspring of Chaos. These were Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), who

formed a striking contrast to the cheerful light of heaven and the bright

smiles of earth. Erebus reigned in that mysterious world below where no ray

of sunshine, no gleam of daylight, nor vestige of health-giving terrestrial

life ever appeared. Nyx, the sister of Erebus, represented Night, and was

worshipped by the ancients with the greatest solemnity.

 

Uranus was also supposed to have been united to Nyx, but only in his

capacity as god of light, he being considered the source and fountain of

all light, and their children were Eos (Aurora), the Dawn, and Hemera, the

Daylight. Nyx again, on her side was also doubly united, having been

married at some indefinite period to Erebus.

 

In addition to those children of heaven and earth already enumerated,

Uranus and Gæa produced two distinctly different races of beings called

Giants and Titans. The Giants personified brute strength alone, but the

Titans united to their great physical power intellectual qualifications

variously developed. There were three Giants, Briareus, Cottus, and Gyges,

who each possessed a hundred hands and fifty heads, and were known

collectively by the name of the Hecatoncheires, which signified

hundred-handed. These mighty Giants could shake the universe and produce

earthquakes; it is therefore evident that they represented those active

subterranean forces to which allusion has been made in the opening chapter.

The Titans were twelve in number; their names were: Oceanus, Ceos, Crios,

Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, and

Tethys.

 

Now Uranus, the chaste light of heaven, the essence of all that is bright

and pleasing, held in abhorrence his {14} crude, rough, and turbulent

offspring, the Giants, and moreover feared that their great power might

eventually prove hurtful to himself. He therefore hurled them into

Tartarus, that portion of the lower world which served as the subterranean

dungeon of the gods. In order to avenge the oppression of her children, the

Giants, Gæa instigated a conspiracy on the part of the Titans against

Uranus, which was carried to a successful issue by her son Cronus. He

wounded his father, and from the blood of the wound which fell upon the

earth sprang a race of monstrous beings also called Giants. Assisted by his

brother-Titans, Cronus succeeded in dethroning his father, who, enraged at

his defeat, cursed his rebellious son, and foretold to him a similar fate.

Cronus now became invested with supreme power, and assigned to his brothers

offices of distinction, subordinate only to himself. Subsequently, however,

when, secure of his position, he no longer needed their assistance, he

basely repaid their former services with treachery, made war upon his

brothers and faithful allies, and, assisted by the Giants, completely

defeated them, sending such as resisted his all-conquering arm down into

the lowest depths of Tartarus.

 

* * * * *

 

SECOND DYNASTY.

 

CRONUS (SATURN).

 

Cronus was the god of time in its sense of eternal duration. He married

Rhea, daughter of Uranus and Gæa, a very important divinity, to whom a

special chapter will be devoted hereafter. Their children were, three sons:

Aïdes (Pluto), Poseidon (Neptune), Zeus (Jupiter), and three daughters:

Hestia (Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), and Hera (Juno). Cronus, having an uneasy

conscience, was afraid that his children might one day rise up against his

authority, and thus verify the prediction of his father {15} Uranus. In

order, therefore, to render the prophecy impossible of fulfilment, Cronus

swallowed each child as soon as it was born,[3] greatly to the sorrow and

indignation of his wife Rhea. When it came to Zeus, the sixth and last,

Rhea resolved to try and save this one child at least, to love and cherish,

and appealed to her parents, Uranus and Gæa, for counsel and assistance. By

their advice she wrapped a stone in baby-clothes, and Cronus, in eager

haste, swallowed it, without noticing the deception. The child thus saved,

eventually, as we shall see, dethroned his father Cronus, became supreme

god in his stead, and was universally venerated as the great national god

of the Greeks.

 

[Illustration]

 

Anxious to preserve the secret of his existence from Cronus, Rhea sent the

infant Zeus secretly to Crete, where he was nourished, protected, and

educated. A sacred goat, called Amalthea, supplied the place of his mother,

by providing him with milk; nymphs, called Melissae, fed him with honey,

and eagles and doves brought him nectar and ambrosia.[4] He was kept

concealed in a cave in the heart of Mount Ida, and the Curetes, or priests

of Rhea, by beating their shields together, kept up a constant noise at the

entrance, which drowned the cries of the child and frightened away all

intruders. Under the watchful care of the Nymphs the infant Zeus throve

rapidly, developing great physical powers, combined with {16} extraordinary

wisdom and intelligence. Grown to manhood, he determined to compel his

father to restore his brothers and sisters to the light of day, and is said

to have been assisted in this difficult task by the goddess Metis, who

artfully persuaded Cronus to drink a potion, which caused him to give back

the children he had swallowed. The stone which had counterfeited Zeus was

placed at Delphi, where it was long exhibited as a sacred relic.

 

Cronus was so enraged at being circumvented that war between the father and

son became inevitable. The rival forces ranged themselves on two separate

high mountains in Thessaly; Zeus, with his brothers and sisters, took his

stand on Mount Olympus, where he was joined by Oceanus, and others of the

Titans, who had forsaken Cronus on account of his oppressions. Cronus and

his brother-Titans took possession of Mount Othrys, and prepared for

battle. The struggle was long and fierce, and at length Zeus, finding that

he was no nearer victory than before, bethought himself of the existence of

the imprisoned Giants, and knowing that they would be able to render him

most powerful assistance, he hastened to liberate them. He also called to

his aid the Cyclops (sons of Poseidon and Amphitrite),[5] who had only one

eye each in the middle of their foreheads, and were called Brontes

(Thunder), Steropes (Lightning), and Pyracmon (Fire-anvil). They promptly

responded to his summons for help, and brought with them tremendous

thunderbolts which the Hecatoncheires, with their hundred hands, hurled

down upon the enemy, at the same time raising mighty earthquakes, which

swallowed up and destroyed all who opposed them. Aided by these new and

powerful allies, Zeus now made a furious onslaught on his enemies, and so

tremendous was the encounter that all nature is said to have throbbed in

accord with this mighty effort of the celestial deities. The sea rose

mountains high, and its angry billows {17} hissed and foamed; the earth

shook to its foundations, the heavens sent forth rolling thunder, and flash

after flash of death-bringing lightning, whilst a blinding mist enveloped

Cronus and his allies.

 

And now the fortunes of war began to turn, and victory smiled on Zeus.

Cronus and his army were completely overthrown, his brothers despatched to

the gloomy depths of the lower world, and Cronus himself was banished from

his kingdom and deprived for ever of the supreme power, which now became

vested in his son Zeus. This war was called the Titanomachia, and is most

graphically described by the old classic poets.

 

[Illustration]

 

With the defeat of Cronus and his banishment from his dominions, his career

as a ruling Greek divinity entirely ceases. But being, like all the gods,

immortal, he was supposed to be still in existence, though possessing no

longer either influence or authority, his place being filled to a certain

extent by his descendant and successor, Zeus.

 

Cronus is often represented as an old man leaning on a scythe, with an

hour-glass in his hand. The hour-glass symbolizes the fast-fleeting moments

as they succeed each other unceasingly; the scythe is emblematical of time,

which mows down all before it.

 

SATURN.

 

The Romans, according to their custom of identifying their deities with

those of the Greek gods whose attributes were similar to their own,

declared Cronus to be identical with their old agricultural divinity

Saturn. They believed that after his defeat in the {18} Titanomachia and

his banishment from his dominions by Zeus, he took refuge with Janus, king

of Italy, who received the exiled deity with great kindness, and even

shared his throne with him. Their united reign became so thoroughly

peaceful and happy, and was distinguished by such uninterrupted prosperity,

that it was called the Golden Age.

 

Saturn is usually represented bearing a sickle in the one hand and a

wheat-sheaf in the other.

 

A temple was erected to him at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, in which

were deposited the public treasury and the laws of the state.

 

RHEA (OPS).

 

Rhea, the wife of Cronus, and mother of Zeus and the other great gods of

Olympus, personified the earth, and was regarded as the Great Mother and

unceasing producer of all plant-life. She was also believed to exercise

unbounded sway over the animal creation, more especially over the lion, the

noble king of beasts. Rhea is generally represented wearing a crown of

turrets or towers and seated on a throne, with lions crouching at her feet.

She is sometimes depicted sitting in a chariot, drawn by lions.

 

The principal seat of her worship, which was always of a very riotous

character, was at Crete. At her festivals, which took place at night, the

wildest music of flutes, cymbals, and drums resounded, whilst joyful shouts

and cries, accompanied by dancing and loud stamping of feet, filled the

air.

 

This divinity was introduced into Crete by its first colonists from

Phrygia, in Asia Minor, in which country she was worshipped under the name

of Cybele. The people of Crete adored her as the Great Mother, more

especially in her signification as the sustainer of the vegetable world.

Seeing, however, that year by year, as winter appears, all her glory

vanishes, her flowers fade, and her trees become leafless, they poetically

expressed this process of nature under the figure of a lost love. She {19}

was said to have been tenderly attached to a youth of remarkable beauty,

named Atys, who, to her grief and indignation, proved faithless to her. He

was about to unite himself to a nymph called Sagaris, when, in the midst of

the wedding feast, the rage of the incensed goddess suddenly burst forth

upon all present. A panic seized the assembled guests, and Atys, becoming

afflicted with temporary madness, fled to the mountains and destroyed

himself. Cybele, moved with sorrow and regret, instituted a yearly mourning

for his loss, when her priests, the Corybantes, with their usual noisy

accompaniments, marched into the mountains to seek the lost youth. Having

discovered him[6] they gave full vent to their ecstatic delight by

indulging in the most violent gesticulations, dancing, shouting, and, at

the same time, wounding and gashing themselves in a frightful manner.

 

OPS.

 

In Rome the Greek Rhea was identified with Ops, the goddess of plenty, the

wife of Saturn, who had a variety of appellations. She was called

Magna-Mater, Mater-Deorum, Berecynthia-Idea, and also Dindymene. This

latter title she acquired from three high mountains in Phrygia, whence she

was brought to Rome as Cybele during the second Punic war, B.C. 205, in

obedience to an injunction contained in the Sybilline books. She was

represented as a matron crowned with towers, seated in a chariot drawn by

lions.

 

* * * * *

 

DIVISION OF THE WORLD.

 

We will now return to Zeus and his brothers, who, having gained a complete

victory over their enemies, began to consider how the world, which they had

{20} conquered, should be divided between them. At last it was settled by

lot that Zeus should reign supreme in Heaven, whilst Aïdes governed the

Lower World, and Poseidon had full command over the Sea, but the supremacy

of Zeus was recognized in all three kingdoms, in heaven, on earth (in which

of course the sea was included), and under the earth. Zeus held his court

on the top of Mount Olympus, whose summit was beyond the clouds; the

dominions of Aïdes were the gloomy unknown regions below the earth; and

Poseidon reigned over the sea. It will be seen that the realm of each of

these gods was enveloped in mystery. Olympus was shrouded in mists, Hades

was wrapt in gloomy darkness, and the sea was, and indeed still is, a

source of wonder and deep interest. Hence we see that what to other nations

were merely strange phenomena, served this poetical and imaginative people

as a foundation upon which to build the wonderful stories of their

mythology.

 

The division of the world being now satisfactorily arranged, it would seem

that all things ought to have gone on smoothly, but such was not the case.

Trouble arose in an unlooked-for quarter. The Giants, those hideous

monsters (some with legs formed of serpents) who had sprung from the earth

and the blood of Uranus, declared war against the triumphant deities of

Olympus, and a struggle ensued, which, in consequence of Gæa having made

these children of hers invincible as long as they kept their feet on the

ground, was wearisome and protracted. Their mother's precaution, however,

was rendered unavailing by pieces of rock being hurled upon them, which

threw them down, and their feet being no longer placed firmly on their

mother-earth, they were overcome, and this tedious war (which was called

the Gigantomachia) at last came to an end. Among the most daring of these

earth-born giants were Enceladus, Rhoetus, and the valiant Mimas, who, with

youthful fire and energy, hurled against heaven great masses of rock and

burning oak-trees, and defied the lightnings of Zeus. One of the most

powerful monsters who opposed Zeus in this {21} war was called Typhon or

Typhoeus. He was the youngest son of Tartarus and Gæa, and had a hundred

heads, with eyes which struck terror to the beholders, and awe-inspiring

voices frightful to hear. This dreadful monster resolved to conquer both

gods and men, but his plans were at length defeated by Zeus, who, after a

violent encounter, succeeded in destroying him with a thunderbolt, but not

before he had so terrified the gods that they had fled for refuge to Egypt,

where they metamorphosed themselves into different animals and thus

escaped.

 

* * * * *

 

THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF MAN.

 

Just as there were several theories concerning the origin of the world, so

there were various accounts of the creation of man.

 

The first natural belief of the Greek people was that man had sprung from

the earth. They saw the tender plants and flowers force their way through

the ground in the early spring of the year after the frost of winter had

disappeared, and so they naturally concluded that man must also have issued

from the earth in a similar manner. Like the wild plants and flowers, he

was supposed to have had no cultivation, and resembled in his habits the

untamed beasts of the field, having no habitation except that which nature

had provided in the holes of the rocks, and in the dense forests whose

overarching boughs protected him from the inclemency of the weather.

 

In the course of time these primitive human beings became tamed and

civilized by the gods and heroes, who taught them to work in metals, to

build houses, and other useful arts of civilization. But the human race

became in the course of time so degenerate that the gods resolved to

destroy all mankind by means of a flood; Deucalion {22} (son of Prometheus)

and his wife Pyrrha, being, on account of their piety, the only mortals

saved.

 

By the command of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which he and his

wife took refuge during the deluge, which lasted for nine days. When the

waters abated the ship rested on Mount Othrys in Thessaly, or according to

some on Mount Parnassus. Deucalion and his wife now consulted the oracle of

Themis as to how the human race might be restored. The answer was, that

they were to cover their heads, and throw the bones of their mother behind

them. For some time they were perplexed as to the meaning of the oracular

command, but at length both agreed that by the bones of their mother were

meant the stones of the earth. They accordingly took up stones from the

mountain side and cast them over their shoulders. From those thrown by

Deucalion there sprang up men, and from those thrown by Pyrrha, women.

 

After the lapse of time the theory of Autochthony (from _autos_, self, and

_chthon_, earth) was laid aside. When this belief existed there were no

religious teachers whatever; but in course of time temples were raised in

honour of the different gods, and priests appointed to offer sacrifices to

them and conduct their worship. These priests were looked upon as

authorities in all religious matters, and the doctrine they taught was,

that man had been created by the gods, and that there had been several

successive ages of men, which were called the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and

Iron Ages.

 

Life in the Golden Age was one unceasing round of ever-recurring pleasures

unmarred by sorrow or care. The favoured mortals living at this happy time

led pure and joyous lives, thinking no evil, and doing no wrong. The earth

brought forth fruits and flowers without toil or labour in plentiful

luxuriance, and war was unknown. This delightful and god-like existence

lasted for hundreds of years, and when at length life on earth was ended,

death laid his hand so gently upon them that they passed painlessly away in

a happy dream, and continued their existence as ministering spirits in

Hades, watching over and {23} protecting those they had loved and left

behind on earth. The men of the Silver Age[7] were a long time growing up,

and during their childhood, which lasted a hundred years, they suffered

from ill-health and extreme debility. When they at last became men they

lived but a short time, for they would not abstain from mutual injury, nor

pay the service due to the gods, and were therefore banished to Hades.

There, unlike the beings of the Golden Age, they exercised no beneficent

supervision over the dear ones left behind, but wandered about as restless

spirits, always sighing for the lost pleasures they had enjoyed in life.

 

The men of the Brazen Age were quite a different race of beings, being as

strong and powerful as those of the Silver Age were weak and enervated.

Everything which surrounded them was of brass; their arms, their tools,

their dwellings, and all that they made. Their characters seem to have

resembled the metal in which they delighted; their minds and hearts were

hard, obdurate, and cruel. They led a life of strife and contention,

introduced into the world, which had hitherto known nothing but peace and

tranquillity, the scourge of war, and were in fact only happy when fighting

and quarrelling with each other. Hitherto Themis, the goddess of Justice,

had been living among mankind, but becoming disheartened at their evil

doings, she abandoned the earth, and winged her flight back to heaven. At

last the gods became so tired of their evil deeds and continual

dissensions, that they removed them from the face of the earth, and sent

them down to Hades to share the fate of their predecessors.

 

We now come to the men of the Iron Age. The earth, no longer teeming with

fruitfulness, only yielded her increase after much toil and labour. The

goddess of Justice having abandoned mankind, no influence remained

sufficiently powerful to preserve them from every kind of wickedness and

sin. This condition grew worse as time went on, until at last Zeus in his

anger let loose the water-courses from above, and drowned every {24}

individual of this evil race, except Deucalion and Pyrrha.

 

The theory of Hesiod,[8] the oldest of all the Greek poets, was that the

Titan Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, had formed man out of clay, and that

Athene had breathed a soul into him. Full of love for the beings he had

called into existence, Prometheus determined to elevate their minds and

improve their condition in every way; he therefore taught them astronomy,

mathematics, the alphabet, how to cure diseases, and the art of divination.

He created this race in such great numbers that the gods began to see the

necessity of instituting certain fixed laws with regard to the sacrifices

due to them, and the worship to which they considered themselves entitled

from mankind in return for the protection which they accorded them. An

assembly was therefore convened at Mecone in order to settle these points.

It was decided that Prometheus, as the advocate of man, should slay an ox,

which should be divided into two equal parts, and that the gods should

select one portion which should henceforth, in all future sacrifices, be

set apart for them. Prometheus so divided the ox that one part consisted of

the bones (which formed of course the least valuable portion of the

animal), artfully concealed by the white fat; whilst the other contained

all the edible parts, which he covered with the skin, and on the top of all

he laid the stomach.

 

Zeus, pretending to be deceived, chose the heap of bones, but he saw

through the stratagem, and was so angry at the deception practised on him

by Prometheus that he avenged himself by refusing to mortals the gift of

fire. {25} Prometheus, however, resolved to brave the anger of the great

ruler of Olympus, and to obtain from heaven the vital spark so necessary

for the further progress and comfort of the human race. He accordingly

contrived to steal some sparks from the chariot of the sun, which he

conveyed to earth hidden in a hollow tube. Furious at being again

outwitted, Zeus determined to be revenged first on mankind, and then on

Prometheus. To punish the former he commanded Hephæstus (Vulcan) to mould a

beautiful woman out of clay, and determined that through her

instrumentality trouble and misery should be brought into the world.

 

The gods were so charmed with the graceful and artistic creation of

Hephæstus, that they all determined to endow her with some special gift.

Hermes (Mercury) bestowed on her a smooth persuasive tongue, Aphrodite gave

her beauty and the art of pleasing; the Graces made her fascinating, and

Athene (Minerva) gifted her with the possession of feminine

accomplishments. She was called Pandora, which means all-gifted, having

received every attribute necessary to make her charming and irresistible.

Thus beautifully formed and endowed, this exquisite creature, attired by

the Graces, and crowned with flowers by the Seasons, was conducted to the

house of Epimetheus[9] by Hermes the messenger of the gods. Now Epimetheus

had been warned by his brother not to accept any gift whatever from the

gods; but he was so fascinated by the beautiful being who suddenly appeared

before him, that he welcomed her to his home, and made her his wife. It was

not long, however, before he had cause to regret his weakness.

 

He had in his possession a jar of rare workmanship, containing all the

blessings reserved by the gods for mankind, which he had been expressly

forbidden to open. But woman's proverbial curiosity could not withstand so

great a temptation, and Pandora determined to solve the mystery at any

cost. Watching her opportunity she raised the lid, and immediately all the

blessings which {26} the gods had thus reserved for mankind took wing and

flew away. But all was not lost. Just as Hope (which lay at the bottom) was

about to escape, Pandora hastily closed the lid of the jar, and thus

preserved to man that never-failing solace which helps him to bear with

courage the many ills which assail him.[10]

 

Having punished mankind, Zeus determined to execute vengeance on

Prometheus. He accordingly chained him to a rock in Mount Caucasus, and

sent an eagle every day to gnaw away his liver, which grew again every

night ready for fresh torments. For thirty years Prometheus endured this fearful punishment; but at length Zeus relented, and permitted his son Heracles (Hercules) to kill the eagle, and the sufferer was released.