Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 3

Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 3

THIRD DYNASTY--OLYMPIAN DIVINITIES.

 

ZEUS[11] (JUPITER).

 

Zeus, the great presiding deity of the universe, the ruler of heaven and

earth, was regarded by the Greeks, first, as the god of all aërial

phenomena; secondly, as the personification of the laws of nature; thirdly,

as lord of state-life; and fourthly, as the father of gods and men.

 

As the god of aërial phenomena he could, by shaking his ægis,[12] produce

storms, tempests, and intense darkness. At his command the mighty thunder

rolls, the lightning flashes, and the clouds open and pour forth their

refreshing streams to fructify the earth.

 

As the personification of the operations of nature, he represents those

grand laws of unchanging and harmonious order, by which not only the

physical but also {27} the moral world is governed. Hence he is the god of

regulated time as marked by the changing seasons, and by the regular

succession of day and night, in contradistinction to his father Cronus, who

represents time absolutely, _i.e._ eternity.

 

As the lord of state-life, he is the founder of kingly power, the upholder

of all institutions connected with the state, and the special friend and

patron of princes, whom he guards and assists with his advice and counsel.

He protects the assembly of the people, and, in fact, watches over the

welfare of the whole community.

 

As the father of the gods, Zeus sees that each deity performs his or her

individual duty, punishes their misdeeds, settles their disputes, and acts

towards them on all occasions as their all-knowing counsellor and mighty

friend.

 

As the father of men, he takes a paternal interest in the actions and

well-being of mortals. He watches over them with tender solicitude,

rewarding truth, charity, and uprightness, but severely punishing perjury,

cruelty, and want of hospitality. Even the poorest and most forlorn

wanderer finds in him a powerful advocate, for he, by a wise and merciful

dispensation, ordains that the mighty ones of the earth should succour

their distressed and needy brethren.

 

The Greeks believed that the home of this their mighty and all-powerful

deity was on the top of Mount Olympus, that high and lofty mountain between

Thessaly and Macedon, whose summit, wrapt in clouds and mist, was hidden

from mortal view. It was supposed that this mysterious region, which even a

bird could not reach, extended beyond the clouds right into Aether, the

realm of the immortal gods. The poets describe this ethereal atmosphere as

bright, glistening, and refreshing, exercising a peculiar, gladdening

influence over the minds and hearts of those privileged beings permitted to

share its delights. Here youth never ages, and the passing years leave no

traces on its favoured inhabitants. On the cloud-capped summit of Olympus

was the palace of {28} Zeus and Hera, of burnished gold, chased silver, and

gleaming ivory. Lower down were the homes of the other gods, which, though

less commanding in position and size, were yet similar to that of Zeus in

design and workmanship, all being the work of the divine artist Hephæstus.

Below these were other palaces of silver, ebony, ivory, or burnished brass,

where the Heroes, or Demi-gods, resided.

 

As the worship of Zeus formed so important a feature in the religion of the

Greeks, his statues were necessarily both numerous and magnificent. He is

usually represented as a man of noble and imposing mien, his countenance

expressing all the lofty majesty of the omnipotent ruler of the universe,

combined with the gracious, yet serious, benignity of the father and friend

of mankind. He may be recognized by his rich flowing beard, and the thick

masses of hair, which rise straight from the high and intellectual forehead

and fall to his shoulders in clustering locks. The nose is large and finely

formed, and the slightly-opened lips impart an air of sympathetic

kindliness which invites confidence. He is always accompanied by an eagle,

which either surmounts his sceptre, or sits at his feet; he generally bears

in his uplifted hand a sheaf of thunder-bolts, just ready to be hurled,

whilst in the other he holds the lightning. The head is frequently

encircled with a wreath of oak-leaves.

 

[Illustration]

 

The most celebrated statue of the Olympian Zeus was that by the famous

Athenian sculptor Phidias, which was forty feet high, and stood in the

temple of Zeus at Olympia. It was formed of ivory and gold, and was {29}

such a masterpiece of art, that it was reckoned among the seven wonders of

the world. It represented the god, seated on a throne, holding in his right

hand a life-sized image of Nike (the goddess of Victory), and in his left a

royal sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. It is said that the great sculptor

had concentrated all the marvellous powers of his genius on this sublime

conception, and earnestly entreated Zeus to give him a decided proof that

his labours were approved. An answer to his prayer came through the open

roof of the temple in the shape of a flash of lightning, which Phidias

interpreted as a sign that the god of heaven was pleased with his work.

 

Zeus was first worshipped at Dodona in Epirus, where, at the foot of Mount

Tomarus, on the woody shore of Lake Joanina, was his famous oracle, the

most ancient in Greece. Here the voice of the eternal and invisible god was

supposed to be heard in the rustling leaves of a giant oak, announcing to

mankind the will of heaven and the destiny of mortals; these revelations

being interpreted to the people by the priests of Zeus, who were called

Selli. Recent excavations which have been made at this spot have brought to

light the ruins of the ancient temple of Zeus, and also, among other

interesting relics, some plates of lead, on which are engraved inquiries

which were evidently made by certain individuals who consulted the oracle.

These little leaden plates speak to us, as it were, in a curiously homely

manner of a by-gone time in the buried past. One person inquires what god

he should apply to for health and fortune; another asks for advice

concerning his child; and a third, evidently a shepherd, promises a gift to

the oracle should a speculation in sheep turn out successfully. Had these

little memorials been of gold instead of lead, they would doubtless have

shared the fate of the numerous treasures which adorned this and other

temples, in the universal pillage which took place when Greece fell into

the hands of barbarians.

 

Though Dodona was the most ancient of his shrines, the great national seat

of the worship of Zeus was at Olympia in Elis, where there was a

magnificent temple {30} dedicated to him, containing the famous colossal

statue by Phidias above described. Crowds of devout worshippers flocked to

this world-renowned fane from all parts of Greece, not only to pay homage

to their supreme deity, but also to join in the celebrated games which were

held there at intervals of four years. The Olympic games were such a

thoroughly national institution, that even Greeks who had left their native

country made a point of returning on these occasions, if possible, in order

to contend with their fellow-countrymen in the various athletic sports

which took place at these festivals.

 

It will be seen on reflection that in a country like Greece, which

contained so many petty states, often at variance with each other, these

national gatherings must have been most valuable as a means of uniting the

Greeks in one great bond of brotherhood. On these festive occasions the

whole nation met together, forgetting for the moment all past differences,

and uniting in the enjoyment of the same festivities.

 

It will doubtless have been remarked that in the representations of Zeus he

is always accompanied by an eagle. This royal bird was sacred to him,

probably from the fact of its being the only creature capable of gazing at

the sun without being dazzled, which may have suggested the idea that it

was able to contemplate the splendour of divine majesty unshrinkingly.

 

The oak-tree, and also the summits of mountains, were sacred to Zeus. His

sacrifices consisted of white bulls, cows, and goats.

 

Zeus had seven immortal wives, whose names were Metis, Themis, Eurynome,

Demeter, Mnemosyne, Leto, and Hera.

 

METIS, his first wife, was one of the Oceanides or sea-nymphs. She was the

personification of prudence and wisdom, a convincing proof of which she

displayed in her successful administration of the potion which caused

Cronus to yield up his children. She was endowed with the gift of prophecy,

and foretold to Zeus that one of their children would gain ascendency over

{31} him. In order, therefore, to avert the possibility of the prediction

being fulfilled he swallowed her before any children were born to them.

Feeling afterwards violent pains in his head, he sent for Hephæstus, and

ordered him to open it with an axe. His command was obeyed, and out sprang,

with a loud and martial shout, a beautiful being, clad in armour from head

to foot. This was Athene (Minerva), goddess of Armed Resistance and Wisdom.

 

THEMIS was the goddess of Justice, Law, and Order.

 

EURYNOME was one of the Oceanides, and the mother of the Charites or

Graces.

 

DEMETER,[13] the daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was the goddess of

Agriculture.

 

MNEMOSYNE, the daughter of Uranus and Gæa, was the goddess of Memory and

the mother of the nine Muses.

 

LETO (Latona) was the daughter of Coeus and Phoebe. She was gifted with

wonderful beauty, and was tenderly loved by Zeus, but her lot was far from

being a happy one, for Hera, being extremely jealous of her, persecuted her

with inveterate cruelty, and sent the dreadful serpent Python[14] to

terrify and torment her wherever she went. But Zeus, who had observed with

the deepest compassion her weary wanderings and agonized fears, resolved to

create for her some place of refuge, however humble, where she might feel

herself safe from the venomous attacks of the serpent. He therefore brought

her to Delos, a floating island in the Ægean Sea, which he made stationary

by attaching it with chains of adamant to the bottom of the sea. Here she

gave birth to her twin-children, Apollo and Artemis (Diana), two of the

most beautiful of the immortals.

 

According to some versions of the story of Leto, Zeus transformed her into

a quail, in order that she might thus elude the vigilance of Hera, and she

is said to have {32} resumed her true form when she arrived at the island

of Delos.

 

HERA, being the principal wife of Zeus and queen of heaven, a detailed

account will be given of her in a special chapter.

 

In the union of Zeus with most of his immortal wives we shall find that an

allegorical meaning is conveyed. His marriage with Metis, who is said to

have surpassed both gods and men in knowledge, represents supreme power

allied to wisdom and prudence. His union with Themis typifies the bond

which exists between divine majesty and justice, law, and order. Eurynome,

as the mother of the Charites or Graces, supplied the refining and

harmonizing influences of grace and beauty, whilst the marriage of Zeus

with Mnemosyne typifies the union of genius with memory.

 

* * * * *

 

In addition to the seven immortal wives of Zeus, he was also allied to a

number of mortal maidens whom he visited under various disguises, as it was

supposed that if he revealed himself in his true form as king of heaven the

splendour of his glory would cause instant destruction to mortals. The

mortal consorts of Zeus have been such a favourite theme with poets,

painters, and sculptors, that it is necessary to give some account of their

individual history. Those best known are Antiope, Leda, Europa, Callisto,

Alcmene, Semele, Io, and Danae.

 

ANTIOPE, to whom Zeus appeared under the form of a satyr, was the daughter

of Nicteus, king of Thebes. To escape the anger of her father she fled to

Sicyon, where king Epopeus, enraptured with her wonderful beauty, made her

his wife without asking her father's consent. This so enraged Nicteus that

he declared war against Epopeus, in order to compel him to restore Antiope.

At his death, which took place before he could succeed in his purpose,

Nicteus left his kingdom to his brother Lycus, commanding him, at the same

time, to carry on the war, and execute his vengeance. Lycus invaded Sicyon,

defeated and killed Epopeus, and brought back {33} Antiope as a prisoner.

On the way to Thebes she gave birth to her twin-sons, Amphion and Zethus,

who, by the orders of Lycus, were at once exposed on Mount Cithaeron, and

would have perished but for the kindness of a shepherd, who took pity on

them and preserved their lives. Antiope was, for many years, held captive

by her uncle Lycus, and compelled to suffer the utmost cruelty at the hands

of his wife Dirce. But one day her bonds were miraculously loosened, and

she flew for shelter and protection to the humble dwelling of her sons on

Mount Cithaeron. During the long period of their mother's captivity the

babes had grown into sturdy youths, and, as they listened angrily to the

story of her wrongs, they became all impatience to avenge them. Setting off

at once to Thebes they succeeded in possessing themselves of the town, and

after slaying the cruel Lycus they bound Dirce by the hair to the horns of

a wild bull, which dragged her hither and thither until she expired. Her

mangled body was cast into the fount near Thebes, which still bears her

name. Amphion became king of Thebes in his uncle's stead. He was a friend

of the Muses, and devoted to music and poetry. His brother, Zethus, was

famous for his skill in archery, and was passionately fond of the chase. It

is said that when Amphion wished to inclose the town of Thebes with walls

and towers, he had but to play a sweet melody on the lyre, given to him by

Hermes, and the huge stones began to move, and obediently fitted themselves

together.

 

The punishment of Dirce at the hands of Amphion and Zethus forms the

subject of the world-renowned marble group in the museum at Naples, known

by the name of the Farnese Bull.

 

In sculpture Amphion is always represented with a lyre; Zethus with a club.

 

LEDA, whose affections Zeus won under the form of a swan, was the daughter

of Thestius, king of Ætolia. Her twin-sons, Castor and (Polydeuces or)

Pollux,[15] were {34} renowned for their tender attachment to each other.

They were also famous for their physical accomplishments, Castor being the

most expert charioteer of his day, and Pollux the first of pugilists. Their

names appear both among the hunters of the Calydonian boar-hunt and the

heroes of the Argonautic expedition. The brothers became attached to the

daughters of Leucippus, prince of the Messenians, who had been betrothed by

their father to Idas and Lynceus, sons of Aphareus. Having persuaded

Leucippus to break his promise, the twins carried off the maidens as their

brides. Idas and Lynceus, naturally furious at this proceeding, challenged

the Dioscuri to mortal combat, in which Castor perished by the hand of

Idas, and Lynceus by that of Pollux. Zeus wished to confer the gift of

immortality upon Pollux, but he refused to accept it unless allowed to

share it with Castor. Zeus gave the desired permission, and the faithful

brothers were both allowed to live, but only on alternate days. The

Dioscuri received divine honours throughout Greece, and were worshipped

with special reverence at Sparta.

 

EUROPA was the beautiful daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. She was one

day gathering flowers with her companions in a meadow near the sea-shore,

when Zeus, charmed with her great beauty, and wishing to win her love,

transformed himself into a beautiful white bull, and trotted quietly up to

the princess, so as not to alarm her. Surprised at the gentleness of the

animal, and admiring its beauty, as it lay placidly on the grass, she

caressed it, crowned it with flowers, and, at last, playfully seated

herself on its back. Hardly had she done so than the disguised god bounded

away with his lovely burden, and swam across the sea with her to the island

of Crete.

 

Europa was the mother of Minos, Aeacus, and Rhadamanthus. Minos, who became

king of Crete, was celebrated for his justice and moderation, and after

death he was created one of the judges of the lower world, which office he

held in conjunction with his brothers. {35}

 

CALLISTO, the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, was a huntress in the

train of Artemis, devoted to the pleasures of the chase, who had made a vow

never to marry; but Zeus, under the form of the huntress-goddess, succeeded

in obtaining her affections. Hera, being extremely jealous of her, changed

her into a bear, and caused Artemis (who failed to recognize her attendant

under this form) to hunt her in the chase, and put an end to her existence.

After her death she was placed by Zeus among the stars as a constellation,

under the name of Arctos, or the bear.

 

ALCMENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenae, was betrothed to her

cousin Amphytrion; but, during his absence on a perilous undertaking, Zeus

assumed his form, and obtained her affections. Heracles (whose

world-renowned exploits will be related among the legends) was the son of

Alcmene and Zeus.

 

SEMELE, a beautiful princess, the daughter of Cadmus, king of Phoenicia,

was greatly beloved by Zeus. Like the unfortunate Callisto, she was hated

by Hera with jealous malignity, and the haughty queen of heaven determined

to effect her destruction. Disguising herself, therefore, as Beroe,

Semele's faithful old nurse, she artfully persuaded her to insist upon Zeus

visiting her, as he appeared to Hera, in all his power and glory, well

knowing that this would cause her instant death. Semele, suspecting no

treachery, followed the advice of her supposed nurse; and the next time

Zeus came to her, she earnestly entreated him to grant the favour she was

about to ask. Zeus swore by the Styx (which was to the gods an irrevocable

oath) to accede to her request whatsoever it might be. Semele, therefore,

secure of gaining her petition, begged of Zeus to appear to her in all the

glory of his divine power and majesty. As he had sworn to grant whatever

she asked of him, he was compelled to comply with her wish; he therefore

revealed himself as the mighty lord of the universe, accompanied by thunder

and lightning, and she was instantly consumed in the flames. {36}

 

IO, daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, was a priestess of Hera. She was

very beautiful, and Zeus, who was much attached to her, transformed her

into a white cow, in order to defeat the jealous intrigues of Hera, who,

however, was not to be deceived. Aware of the stratagem, she contrived to

obtain the animal from Zeus, and placed her under the watchful care of a

man called Argus-Panoptes, who fastened her to an olive-tree in the grove

of Hera. He had a hundred eyes, of which, when asleep, he never closed more

than two at a time; being thus always on the watch, Hera found him

extremely useful in keeping guard over Io. Hermes, however, by the command

of Zeus, succeeded in putting all his eyes to sleep with the sound of his

magic lyre, and then, taking advantage of his helpless condition, slew him.

The story goes, that in commemoration of the services which Argus had

rendered her, Hera placed his eyes on the tail of a peacock, as a lasting

memorial of her gratitude. Ever fertile in resource, Hera now sent a gadfly

to worry and torment the unfortunate Io incessantly, and she wandered all

over the world in hopes of escaping from her tormentor. At length she

reached Egypt, where she found rest and freedom from the persecutions of

her enemy. On the banks of the Nile she resumed her original form and gave

birth to a son called Epaphus, who afterwards became king of Egypt, and

built the famous city of Memphis.

 

DANAE.--Zeus appeared to Danae under the form of a shower of gold. (Further

details concerning her will be found in the legend of Perseus.)

 

* * * * *

 

The Greeks supposed that the divine ruler of the Universe occasionally

assumed a human form, and descended from his celestial abode, in order to

visit mankind and observe their proceedings, his aim being generally either

to punish the guilty, or to reward the deserving.

 

On one occasion Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, made a journey through

Phrygia, seeking hospitality and shelter wherever they went. But nowhere

did they receive a {37} kindly welcome till they came to the humble cottage

of an old man and his wife called Philemon and Baucis, who entertained them

with the greatest kindness, setting before them what frugal fare their

humble means permitted, and bidding them welcome with unaffected

cordiality. Observing in the course of their simple repast that the wine

bowl was miraculously replenished, the aged couple became convinced of the

divine nature of their guests. The gods now informed them that on account

of its wickedness their native place was doomed to destruction, and told

them to climb the neighbouring hill with them, which overlooked the village

where they dwelt. What was their dismay on beholding at their feet, in

place of the spot where they had passed so many happy years together,

nothing but a watery plain, the only house to be seen being their own

little cottage, which suddenly changed itself into a temple before their

eyes. Zeus now asked the worthy pair to name any wish they particularly

desired and it should be granted. They accordingly begged that they might

serve the gods in the temple below, and end life together.

 

Their wish was granted, for, after spending the remainder of their lives in

the worship of the gods, they both died at the same instant, and were

transformed by Zeus into trees, remaining for ever side by side.

 

Upon another occasion Zeus, wishing to ascertain for himself the truth of

the reports concerning the atrocious wickedness of mankind, made a journey

through Arcadia. Being recognized by the Arcadians as king of heaven, he

was received by them with becoming respect and veneration; but Lycaon,

their king, who had rendered himself infamous by the gross impiety of

himself and his sons, doubted the divinity of Zeus, ridiculed his people

for being so easily duped, and, according to his custom of killing all

strangers who ventured to trust his hospitality, resolved to murder him.

Before executing this wicked design, however, he decided to put Zeus to the

test, and having killed a boy for the purpose, placed before him a dish

containing human flesh. But Zeus was {38} not to be deceived. He beheld the

revolting dish with horror and loathing, and angrily upsetting the table

upon which it was placed, turned Lycaon into a wolf, and destroyed all his

fifty sons by lightning, except Nyctimus, who was saved by the intervention

of Gæa.

 

JUPITER.

 

The Roman Jupiter, who is so frequently confounded with the Greek Zeus, is

identical with him only as being the head of the Olympic gods, and the

presiding deity over Life, Light, and Aërial Phenomena. Jupiter is lord of

life in its widest and most comprehensive signification, having absolute

power over life and death, in which respect he differed from the Greek

Zeus, who was to a certain extent controlled by the all-potent sway of the

Moiræ or Fates. Zeus, as we have seen, often condescends to visit mankind,

either as a mortal, or under various disguises, whereas Jupiter always

remains essentially the supreme god of heaven, and never appears upon

earth.

 

The most celebrated temple of Jupiter was that on the Capitoline Hill in

the city of Rome, where he was worshipped under the names of

Jupiter-Optimus-Maximus, Capitolinus, and Tarpeius.

 

The Romans represented him seated on a throne of ivory, holding in his

right hand a sheaf of thunderbolts, and in his left a sceptre, whilst an eagle stands beside his throne.