Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 4

Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 4

HERA (JUNO).

 

Hera, the eldest daughter of Cronus and Rhea, was born at Samos, or,

according to some accounts, at Argos, and was reared by the sea-divinities

Oceanus and Tethys, who were models of conjugal fidelity.[16] She was the

{39} principal wife of Zeus, and, as queen of heaven, participated in the

honours paid to him, but her dominion only extended over the air (the lower

aërial regions). Hera appears to be the sublime embodiment of strict

matronly virtue, and is on that account the protectress of purity and

married women. Faultless herself in her fidelity as a wife, she is

essentially the type of the sanctity of the marriage tie, and holds in

abhorrence any violation of its obligations. So strongly was she imbued

with this hatred of any immorality, that, finding herself so often called

upon to punish the failings of both gods and men in this respect, she

became jealous, harsh, and vindictive. Her exalted position as the wife of

the supreme deity, combined with her extreme beauty, caused her to become

exceedingly vain, and she consequently resented with great severity any

infringement on her rights as queen of heaven, or any apparent slight on

her personal appearance.

 

The following story will signally illustrate how ready she was to resent

any slight offered to her.

 

At the marriage of the sea-nymph Thetis with a mortal called Peleus, all

the gods and goddesses were present, except Eris (the goddess of Discord).

Indignant at not being invited, she determined to cause dissension in the

assembly, and for this purpose threw into the midst of the guests a golden

apple with the inscription on it "For the Fairest." Now, as all the

goddesses were extremely beautiful, each claimed the apple; but at length,

the rest having relinquished their pretensions, the number of candidates

was reduced to three, Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite, who agreed to appeal to

Paris for a settlement of this delicate question, he being noted for the

wisdom he had displayed in his judgment upon several occasions. Paris was

the son of Priam, king of Troy, who, ignorant of his noble birth, was at

this time feeding his flocks on Mount Ida, in Phrygia. Hermes, as messenger

of the gods, conducted the three rival beauties to the young shepherd, and

with breathless anxiety they awaited his decision. Each fair candidate

endeavoured {40} to secure his favour by the most tempting offers. Hera

promised him extensive dominions; Athene, martial fame and glory; and

Aphrodite, the loveliest woman in the world. But whether he really

considered Aphrodite the fairest of the three, or preferred a beautiful

wife to fame and power, we cannot tell; all we know is that to her he

awarded the golden apple, and she became ever after universally

acknowledged as the goddess of beauty. Hera, having fully expected that

Paris would give her the preference, was so indignant that she never

forgave him, and not only persecuted him, but all the family of Priam,

whose dreadful sufferings and misfortunes during the Trojan war were

attributed to her influence. In fact, she carried her animosity to such an

extent that it was often the cause of domestic disagreements between

herself and Zeus, who espoused the cause of the Trojans.

 

Among the many stories of these frequent quarrels there is one connected

with Heracles, the favourite son of Zeus, which is as follows:--Hera having

raised a storm at sea in order to drive him out of his course, Zeus became

so angry that he hung her in the clouds by a golden chain, and attached

heavy anvils to her feet. Her son Hephæstus tried to release his mother

from her humiliating position, for which Zeus threw him out of heaven, and

his leg was broken by the fall.

 

Hera, being deeply offended with Zeus, determined to separate herself from

him for ever, and she accordingly left him and took up her abode in Euboea.

Surprised and grieved at this unlooked-for desertion, Zeus resolved to

leave no means untried to win her back again. In this emergency he

consulted Cithaeron, king of Platea, who was famed for his great wisdom and

subtlety. Cithaeron advised him to dress up an image in bridal attire and

place it in a chariot, announcing that this was Platea, his future wife.

The artifice succeeded. Hera, incensed at the idea of a rival, flew to meet

the procession in great anger, and seizing the supposed bride, she

furiously attacked her and dragged off her nuptial attire. Her delight on

discovering the deception was so great that a {41} reconciliation took

place, and, committing the image to the flames, with joyful laughter she

seated herself in its place and returned to Olympus.

 

Hera was the mother of Ares (Mars), Hephæstus, Hebe, and Eileithyia. Ares

was the god of War; Hephæstus, of Fire; Hebe, of Youth; and Eileithyia

presided over the birth of mortals.

 

Hera dearly loved Greece, and indeed always watched over and protected

Greek interests, her beloved and favourite cities being Argos, Samos,

Sparta, and Mycenæ.

 

[Illustration]

 

Her principal temples were at Argos and Samos. From a remote period she was

greatly venerated at Olympia, and her temple there, which stood in the

Altis or sacred grove, was five hundred years older than that of Zeus on

the same spot. Some interesting excavations which are now going on there

have brought to light the remains of the ancient edifice, which contains

among other treasures of antiquity several beautiful statues, the work of

the famous sculptors of ancient Greece. At first this temple was built of

wood, then of stone, and the one lately discovered was formed of

conglomerate of shells.

 

In the Altis races were run by young maidens in honour of Hera, and the

fleetest of foot received in token of her victory an olive-wreath and a

piece of the flesh of the sacrifices. These races, like the Olympic Games,

were celebrated at intervals of four years, and were called Heræ. A

beautiful robe, woven by sixteen women chosen from the sixteen cities of

Elis, was always offered to Hera on these {42} occasions, and choral songs

and sacred dances formed part of the ceremonies.

 

Hera is usually represented seated on a throne, holding a pomegranate in

one hand and a sceptre surmounted by a cuckoo in the other. She appears as

a calm, dignified matron of majestic beauty, robed in a tunic and mantle,

her forehead is broad and intellectual, her eyes large and fully opened,

and her arms dazzlingly white and finely moulded.

 

The finest statue of this divinity was that by Polycletus at Argos.

 

Her attributes are the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock.

 

The first day of every month a ewe-lamb and sow were sacrificed to Hera.

The hawk, goose, and more particularly the peacock[17] were sacred to her.

Flocks of these beautiful birds generally surround her throne and draw her

chariot, Iris, the Rainbow, being seated behind her.

 

Her favourite flowers were the dittany, poppy, and lily.

 

JUNO.

 

Juno, the Roman divinity supposed to be identical with the Greek Hera,

differed from her in the most salient points, for whereas Hera invariably

appears as the haughty, unbending queen of heaven, Juno, on the other hand,

is revered and beloved as the type of a matron and housewife. She was

worshipped in Rome under various titles, most of which point to her

vocation as the protectress of married women. Juno was believed to watch

over and guard the life of every woman from her birth to her death. The

principal temples dedicated to her were in Rome, one being erected on the

Aventine, and the other on the Capitoline Hill. She had also a temple on

the Arx, in which she was worshipped as Juno Moneta, or the {43} warning

goddess. Adjacent to this shrine was the public mint.[18] On the 1st of

March a grand annual festival, called the Matronalia, was celebrated in her

honour by all the married women of Rome, and this religious institution was

accompanied with much solemnity.[19]

 

PALLAS-ATHENE (MINERVA).

 

Pallas-Athene, goddess of Wisdom and Armed Resistance, was a purely Greek

divinity; that is to say, no other nation possessed a corresponding

conception. She was supposed, as already related, to have issued from the

head of Zeus himself, clad in armour from head to foot. The miraculous

advent of this maiden goddess is beautifully described by Homer in one of

his hymns: snow-capped Olympus shook to its foundation; the glad earth

re-echoed her martial shout; the billowy sea became agitated; and Helios,

the sun-god, arrested his fiery steeds in their headlong course to welcome

this wonderful emanation from the godhead. Athene was at once admitted into

the assembly of the gods, and henceforth took her place as the most

faithful and sagacious of all her father's counsellors. This brave,

dauntless maiden, so exactly the essence of all that is noble in the

character of "the father of gods and men," remained throughout chaste in

word and deed, and kind at heart, without exhibiting any of those failings

which somewhat mar the nobler features in the character of Zeus. This

direct emanation from his own self, justly his favourite child, his better

and purer counterpart, received from him several important prerogatives.

She was permitted to hurl the thunderbolts, to prolong the life of man, and

to bestow the gift of prophecy; in fact Athene was the only divinity whose

authority was equal to that of Zeus himself, and when he had ceased to

visit the earth in person {44} she was empowered by him to act as his

deputy. It was her especial duty to protect the state and all peaceful

associations of mankind, which she possessed the power of defending when

occasion required. She encouraged the maintenance of law and order, and

defended the right on all occasions, for which reason, in the Trojan war

she espouses the cause of the Greeks and exerts all her influence on their

behalf. The Areopagus, a court of justice where religious causes and

murders were tried, was believed to have been instituted by her, and when

both sides happened to have an equal number of votes she gave the

casting-vote in favour of the accused. She was the patroness of learning,

science, and art, more particularly where these contributed directly

towards the welfare of nations. She presided over all inventions connected

with agriculture, invented the plough, and taught mankind how to use oxen

for farming purposes. She also instructed mankind in the use of numbers,

trumpets, chariots, &c., and presided over the building of the Argo,[20]

thereby encouraging the useful art of navigation. She also taught the

Greeks how to build the wooden horse by means of which the destruction of

Troy was effected.

 

The safety of cities depended on her care, for which reason her temples

were generally built on the citadels, and she was supposed to watch over

the defence of the walls, fortifications, harbours, &c. A divinity who so

faithfully guarded the best interests of the state, by not only protecting

it from the attacks of enemies, but also by developing its chief resources

of wealth and prosperity, was worthily chosen as the presiding deity of the

state, and in this character as an essentially political goddess she was

called Athene-Polias.

 

The fact of Athene having been born clad in armour, which merely signified

that her virtue and purity were unassailable, has given rise to the

erroneous supposition that she was the presiding goddess of war; but a

deeper {45} study of her character in all its bearings proves that, in

contradistinction to her brother Ares, the god of war, who loved strife for

its own sake, she only takes up arms to protect the innocent and deserving

against tyrannical oppression. It is true that in the Iliad we frequently

see her on the battlefield fighting valiantly, and protecting her favourite

heroes; but this is always at the command of Zeus, who even supplies her

with arms for the purpose, as it is supposed that she possessed none of her

own. A marked feature in the representations of this deity is the ægis,

that wonderful shield given to her by her father as a further means of

defence, which, when in danger, she swung so swiftly round and round that

it kept at a distance all antagonistic influences; hence her name Pallas,

from _pallo_, I swing. In the centre of this shield, which was covered with

dragon's scales, bordered with serpents, and which she sometimes wore as a

breastplate, was the awe-inspiring head of the Medusa, which had the effect

of turning to stone all beholders.

 

In addition to the many functions which she exercised in connection with

the state, Athene presided over the two chief departments of feminine

industry, spinning and weaving. In the latter art she herself displayed

unrivalled ability and exquisite taste. She wove her own robe and that of

Hera, which last she is said to have embroidered very richly; she also gave

Jason a cloak wrought by herself, when he set forth in quest of the Golden

Fleece. Being on one occasion challenged to a contest in this

accomplishment by a mortal maiden named Arachne, whom she had instructed in

the art of weaving, she accepted the challenge and was completely

vanquished by her pupil. Angry at her defeat, she struck the unfortunate

maiden on the forehead with the shuttle which she held in her hand; and

Arachne, being of a sensitive nature, was so hurt by this indignity that

she hung herself in despair, and was changed by Athene into a spider. This

goddess is said to have invented the flute,[21] upon {46} which she played

with considerable talent, until one day, being laughed at by the assembled

gods and goddesses for the contortions which her countenance assumed during

these musical efforts, she hastily ran to a fountain in order to convince

herself whether she deserved their ridicule. Finding to her intense disgust

that such was indeed the fact, she threw the flute away, and never raised

it to her lips again.

 

[Illustration]

 

Athene is usually represented fully draped; she has a serious and

thoughtful aspect, as though replete with earnestness and wisdom; the

beautiful oval contour of her countenance is adorned by the luxuriance of

her wealth of hair, which is drawn back from the temples and hangs down in

careless grace; she looks the embodiment of strength, grandeur, and

majesty; whilst her broad shoulders and small hips give her a slightly

masculine appearance.

 

When represented as the war-goddess she appears clad in armour, with a

helmet on her head, from which waves a large plume; she carries the ægis on

her arm, and in her hand a golden staff, which possessed the property of

endowing her chosen favourites with youth and dignity.

 

Athene was universally worshipped throughout Greece, but was regarded with

special veneration by the Athenians, she being the guardian deity of

Athens. Her most celebrated temple was the Parthenon, which stood on the

{47} Acropolis at Athens, and contained her world-renowned statue by

Phidias, which ranks second only to that of Zeus by the same great artist.

This colossal statue was 39 feet high, and was composed of ivory and gold;

its majestic beauty formed the chief attraction of the temple. It

represented her standing erect, bearing her spear and shield; in her hand

she held an image of Nike, and at her feet there lay a serpent.

 

The tree sacred to her was the olive, which she herself produced in a

contest with Poseidon. The olive-tree thus called into existence was

preserved in the temple of Erectheus, on the Acropolis, and is said to have

possessed such marvellous vitality, that when the Persians burned it after

sacking the town it immediately burst forth into new shoots.

 

The principal festival held in honour of this divinity was the Panathenæa.

 

The owl, cock, and serpent were the animals sacred to her, and her

sacrifices were rams, bulls, and cows.

 

[Illustration]

 

MINERVA.

 

The Minerva of the Romans was identified with the Pallas-Athene of the

Greeks. Like her she presides over learning and all useful arts, and is the

patroness of the feminine accomplishments of sewing, spinning, weaving, &c.

Schools were under her especial care, and schoolboys, therefore, had

holidays during her festivals (the Greater Quinquatria), when they always

brought a gift to their master, called the Minerval.

 

It is worthy of notice that the only three divinities {48} worshipped in

the Capitol were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and in their joint honour the

Ludi Maximi or great games were held.

 

THEMIS.

 

Themis, who has already been alluded to as the wife of Zeus, was the

daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and personified those divine laws of justice

and order by means of which the well-being and morality of communities are

regulated. She presided over the assemblies of the people and the laws of

hospitality. To her was intrusted the office of convoking the assembly of

the gods, and she was also mistress of ritual and ceremony. On account of

her great wisdom Zeus himself frequently sought her counsel and acted upon

her advice. Themis was a prophetic divinity, and had an oracle near the

river Cephissus in Boeotia.

 

She is usually represented as being in the full maturity of womanhood, of

fair aspect, and wearing a flowing garment, which drapes her noble,

majestic form; in her right hand she holds the sword of justice, and in her

left the scales, which indicate the impartiality with which every cause is

carefully weighed by her, her eyes being bandaged so that the personality

of the individual should carry no weight with respect to the verdict.

 

This divinity is sometimes identified with Tyche, sometimes with Ananke.

 

Themis, like so many other Greek divinities, takes the place of a more

ancient deity of the same name who was a daughter of Uranus and Gæa. This

elder Themis inherited from her mother the gift of prophecy, and when she

became merged into her younger representative she transmitted to her this

prophetic power.

 

HESTIA (Vesta).

 

Hestia was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was the goddess of Fire in

its first application to the wants of mankind, hence she was essentially

the presiding deity {49} of the domestic hearth and the guardian spirit of

man, and it was her pure and benign influence which was supposed to protect

the sanctity of domestic life.

 

Now in these early ages the hearth was regarded as the most important and

most sacred portion of the dwelling, probably because the protection of the

fire was an important consideration, for if once permitted to become

extinct, re-ignition was attended with extreme difficulty. In fact, the

hearth was held so sacred that it constituted the sanctum of the family,

for which reason it was always erected in the centre of every house. It was

a few feet in height and was built of stone; the fire was placed on the top

of it, and served the double purpose of preparing the daily meals, and

consuming the family sacrifices. Round this domestic hearth or altar were

gathered the various members of the family, the head of the house occupying

the place of honour nearest the hearth. Here prayers were said and

sacrifices offered, and here also every kind and loving feeling was

fostered, which even extended to the hunted and guilty stranger, who, if he

once succeeded in touching this sacred altar, was safe from pursuit and

punishment, and was henceforth placed under the protection of the family.

Any crime committed within the sacred precincts of the domestic hearth was

invariably visited by death.

 

[Illustration]

 

In Grecian cities there was a common hall, called the Prytaneum, in which

the members of the government had their meals at the expense of the state,

and here too was the Hestia, or public hearth, with its fire, by means of

which those meals were prepared. It was customary for emigrants to take

with them a portion of this sacred fire, which they jealously guarded and

brought with them to their new home, where it served as a connecting link

between the young Greek colony and the mother country. Hestia is generally

represented standing, and in accordance with the dignity and sanctity of

her character, always appears fully draped. Her countenance is

distinguished by a serene gravity of __EXPRESSION__. {50}

 

VESTA.

 

Vesta occupies a distinguished place among the earlier divinities of the

Romans. Her temple in Rome, containing as it were the hearthstone of the

nation, stood close beside the palace of Numa Pompilius.

 

On her altar burned the never-ceasing fire, which was tended by her

priestesses, the Vestal Virgins.[22]

 

The temple of Vesta was circular in form, and contained that sacred and

highly prized treasure the Palladium of Troy.[23]

 

The great festival in honour of Vesta, called the Vestalia, was celebrated

on the 9th of June.

 

DEMETER (Ceres).

 

Demeter (from _Ge-meter_, earth-mother) was the daughter of Cronus and

Rhea.[24] She represented that portion of Gæa (the whole solid earth) which

we call the earth's crust, and which produces all vegetation. As goddess of

agriculture, field-fruits, plenty, and productiveness, she was the

sustainer of material life, and was therefore a divinity of great

importance. When ancient Gæa lost, with Uranus, her position as a ruling

divinity, she abdicated her sway in favour of her daughter Rhea, who

henceforth inherited the powers which her mother had previously possessed,

receiving in her place the honour and worship of mankind. In a very old

poem Gæa is accordingly described as retiring to a cavern in the bowels

{51} of the earth, where she sits in the lap of her daughter, slumbering,

moaning, and nodding for ever and ever.

 

It is necessary to keep clearly in view the distinctive difference between

the three great earth-goddesses Gæa, Rhea, and Demeter. Gæa represents the

earth as a whole, with its mighty subterranean forces; Rhea is that

productive power which causes vegetation to spring forth, thus sustaining

men and animals; Demeter, by presiding over agriculture, directs and

utilizes Rhea's productive powers. But in later times, when Rhea, like

other ancient divinities, loses her importance as a ruling deity, Demeter

assumes all her functions and attributes, and then becomes the goddess of

the life-producing and life-maintaining earth-crust. We must bear in mind

the fact that man in his primitive state knew neither how to sow nor how to

till the ground; when, therefore, he had exhausted the pastures which

surrounded him he was compelled to seek others which were as yet unreaped;

thus, roaming constantly from one place to another, settled habitations,

and consequently civilizing influences, were impossible. Demeter, however,

by introducing a knowledge of agriculture, put an end, at once and for

ever, to that nomadic life which was now no longer necessary.

 

[Illustration]

 

The favour of Demeter was believed to bring mankind rich harvests and

fruitful crops, whereas her displeasure caused blight, drought, and famine.

The island of Sicily was supposed to be under her especial protection, and

there she was regarded with particular veneration, the Sicilians naturally

attributing the wonderful fertility of their country to the partiality of

the goddess.

 

Demeter is usually represented as a woman of noble {52} bearing and

majestic appearance, tall, matronly, and dignified, with beautiful golden

hair, which falls in rippling curls over her stately shoulders, the yellow

locks being emblematical of the ripened ears of corn. Sometimes she appears

seated in a chariot drawn by winged dragons, at others she stands erect,

her figure drawn up to its full height, and always fully draped; she bears

a sheaf of wheat-ears in one hand and a lighted torch in the other. The

wheat-ears are not unfrequently replaced by a bunch of poppies, with which

her brows are also garlanded, though sometimes she merely wears a simple riband in her hair.