Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 16

Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece and Rome 16

ALTARS.

 

The altar in a Greek temple, which stood in the centre of the building and

in front of the statue of the presiding deity, was generally of a circular

form, and constructed of stone. It was customary to engrave upon it the

name or distinguishing symbol of the divinity to whom it was dedicated; and

it was held so sacred that if any malefactor fled to it his life was safe

from his pursuers, and it was considered one of the greatest acts of

sacrilege to force him from this asylum.

 

The most ancient altars were adorned with horns, which in former times were

emblems of power and dignity, as wealth, and consequently importance,

consisted among most primitive nations in flocks and herds.

 

In addition to those erected in places of public worship, altars were

frequently raised in groves, on highways, or in the market-places of

cities.

 

The gods of the lower world had no altars whatever, ditches or trenches

being dug for the reception of the blood of the sacrifices offered to them.

 

PRIESTS.

 

In ancient times the priests were recognized as a special social caste, and

were distinguished not only by their sacerdotal vestments, but also by

their piety, wisdom, and blameless life. They were the chosen mediators

between gods and men, and offered prayers and sacrifices in the name of the

people, whom they also instructed as to what vows, gifts, and offerings

would be most acceptable to the gods.

 

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Every deity had a different order of priests consecrated to his worship,

and in every place a high-priest was appointed, whose duty it was to

superintend the rest of his order, and also to carry out the more sacred

rites and religious observances.

 

Priests and priestesses were permitted to marry, but not a second time;

some, however, voluntarily adopted a life of celibacy.

 

SACRIFICES.

 

There is no doubt that a feeling of gratitude to the gods for their

protecting care, and the abundance with which they were believed to bless

mankind, has induced men of all nations and in all countries to feel a

desire to sacrifice to their divinities some portion of the gifts so

generously lavished upon them.

 

Among the Greeks, sacrifices were of various kinds. They consisted of

_free-will offerings_, _propitiatory offerings_, &c.

 

_Free-will offerings_ were grateful acknowledgments for benefits received,

and usually consisted of the first-fruits of the field, or the finest of

the flocks and herds, which were required to be without spot or blemish.

 

_Propitiatory offerings_ were brought with the object of appeasing the

anger of the gods.

 

In addition to those above enumerated, sacrifices were made, either with a

view of obtaining success in an enterprise about to be undertaken, or in

fulfilment of a vow, or at the command of an oracle.

 

Every sacrifice was accompanied by salt and also by a libation, which

usually consisted of wine, the cup being always filled to the brim,

indicating that the offering was made without stint. When sacrificing to

the infernal gods the cup containing the libation was filled with blood.

 

The animals offered to the Olympian divinities were white, whilst those to

the gods of the lower world were black. When a man offered a special

sacrifice for himself or his family it partook of the nature of his {193}

occupation; thus a shepherd brought a sheep, a vine-grower his grapes, and

so forth. But in the case of public sacrifices, the supposed individuality

of the deity was always consulted. For instance, to Demeter a sow was

offered, because that animal is apt to root up the seed-corn; to Dionysus a

goat, on account of its being destructive to vineyards, &c.

 

The value of offerings depended greatly upon the position of the

individual; it being regarded as a contempt of the gods for a rich man to

bring a sordid offering, whilst from a poor man the smallest oblation was

considered acceptable.

 

Hecatombs consisted of a hundred animals, and were offered by entire

communities, or by wealthy individuals who either desired, or had obtained

some special favour from the gods.

 

When a sacrifice was to be offered, a fire was kindled on the altar, into

which wine and frankincense were poured, in order to increase the flame. In

very ancient times, the victim was laid upon the altar and burned whole;

but after the time of Prometheus portions only of the shoulders, thighs,

entrails, &c., were sacrificed, the remainder becoming the perquisites of

the priests.

 

The officiating priests wore a crown composed of the leaves of the tree

sacred to the deity they invoked. Thus when sacrificing to Apollo the

crowns were of laurel; when to Heracles, of poplar. This practice of

wearing crowns was, at a later period, adopted by the general public at

banquets and other festivities.

 

On occasions of special solemnity the horns of the victim were overlaid

with gold, and the altars decked with flowers and sacred herbs.

 

The mode of conducting the sacrifices was as follows:--All things being

prepared, a salt cake, the sacrificial knife, and the crowns, were placed

in a small basket, and carried to the sanctuary by a young maiden,

whereupon the victim was conducted into the temple, frequently to the

accompaniment of music. If a small animal, it was driven loose to the

altar; if a large one, it was led by a {194} long trailing rope, in order

to indicate that it was not an unwilling sacrifice.

 

When all were assembled, the priest, after walking in solemn state round

the altar, besprinkled it with a mixture of meal and holy water, after

which he also besprinkled the assembled worshippers, and exhorted them to

join with him in prayer. The service being ended, the priest first tasted

the libation, and after causing the congregation to do the like, poured the

remainder between the horns of the victim, after which frankincense was

strewn upon the altar, and a portion of the meal and water poured upon the

animal, which was then killed. If by any chance the victim escaped the

stroke, or became in any way restless, it was regarded as an evil omen; if,

on the contrary, it expired without a struggle, it was considered

auspicious.

 

At the sacrifices to the aërial divinities music was added, whilst dances

were performed round the altar, and sacred hymns sung. These hymns were

generally composed in honour of the gods, and contained an account of their

famous actions, their clemency and beneficence, and the gifts conferred by

them on mankind. In conclusion, the gods were invoked for a continuance of

their favour, and when the service was ended a feast was held.

 

ORACLES.

 

The desire to penetrate the dark veil of futurity, and thereby to avert, if

possible, threatened danger, has animated mankind in all ages of the world.

Prophetic knowledge was sought by the Greeks at the mouth of oracles, whose

predictions were interpreted to the people by priests, specially appointed

for the purpose.

 

The most famous of these institutions was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi,

which was held in general repute all over the world. People flocked from

far and near to consult this wonderful mouth-piece of the gods, one month

in the year being specially set apart for the purpose.

 

{195}

 

The priestess who delivered the oracles was called the Pythia, after the

serpent Python, which was killed by Apollo. Having first bathed in the

waters of the Castalian spring, she was conducted into the temple by the

priests, and was seated on a sort of three-legged stool or table, called a

tripod, which was placed over the mouth of a cave whence issued sulphurous

vapours. Here she gradually became affected in a remarkable manner, and

fell into an ecstatic condition, in which she uttered wild and

extraordinary phrases, which were held to be the utterance of Apollo

himself; these the priests interpreted to the people, but in most cases in

so ambiguous a manner that the fulfilment of the prediction could not

easily be disputed. During the ceremony, clouds of incense filled the

temple, and hid the priestess from the view of the uninitiated, and at its

conclusion she was reconducted, in a fainting condition, to her cell.

 

The following is a striking instance of the ambiguity of oracular

predictions:--Croesus, the rich king of Lydia, before going to war with

Cyrus, king of Persia, consulted an oracle as to the probable success of

the expedition. The reply he received was, that if he crossed a certain

river he would destroy a great empire. Interpreting the response as being

favourable to his design, Croesus crossed the river, and encountered the

Persian king, by whom he was entirely defeated; and his own empire being

destroyed, the prediction of the oracle was said to have been fulfilled.

 

SOOTHSAYERS (AUGURS).

 

In addition to the manifestation of the will of the gods by means of

oracles, the Greeks also believed that certain men, called soothsayers,

were gifted with the power of foretelling future events from dreams, from

observing the flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificed animals, and even

the direction of the flames and smoke from the altar, &c. {196}

 

AUGURS.

 

The Roman soothsayers were called augurs, and played an important part in

the history of the Romans, as no enterprise was ever undertaken without

first consulting them with regard to its ultimate success.

 

FESTIVALS.

 

Festivals were instituted as seasons of rest, rejoicing, and thanksgiving,

and also as anniversaries to commemorate events of national importance. The

most ancient festivals were those held after the ingathering of the harvest

or vintage, and were celebrated with rejoicings and merry-makings, which

lasted many days, during which time the first-fruits of the fields were

offered to the gods, accompanied by prayers and thanksgiving.

 

The festivals held in cities in honour of special divinities, or in

commemoration of particular events, were conducted with an elaborate

ceremonial. Gorgeous processions, games, chariot races, &c., were

conspicuous features on these occasions, and dramatic performances,

representing particular episodes in the lives of the gods and heroes,

frequently took place.

 

We subjoin a few of the most interesting of the Greek and Roman festivals.

 

* * * * *

 

GREEK FESTIVALS.

 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.

 

One of the most ancient and important among the festivals observed by the

Greeks was that of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which was celebrated in honour

of Demeter and Persephone. The name was derived from Eleusis, a town in

Attica, where the Mysteries were first introduced by the goddess herself.

They were divided into the {197} Greater and Lesser Mysteries, and,

according to the general account, were held every five years. The Greater,

which were celebrated in honour of Demeter, and lasted nine days, were held

in autumn; the Lesser, dedicated to Persephone (who at these festivals was

affectionately called Cora, or the maiden), were held in spring.

 

It is supposed that the secrets taught to the initiated by the priests--the

expounders of the Mysteries--were moral meanings, elucidated from the myths

concerning Demeter and Persephone; but the most important belief inculcated

was the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. That the lessons taught

were of the highest moral character is universally admitted. "The souls of

those who participated in them were filled with the sweetest hopes both as

to this and the future world;" and it was a common saying among the

Athenians: "In the Mysteries no one is sad."

 

The initiation into these solemn rites (which was originally the exclusive

privilege of the Athenians) was accompanied with awe-inspiring ceremonies;

and secrecy was so strictly enjoined that its violation was punished by

death. At the conclusion of the initiation great rejoicings took place,

chariot-races, wrestling matches, &c., were held, and solemn sacrifices

offered.

 

The initiation into the Lesser Mysteries served as a preparation for the

Greater.

 

THESMOPHORIA.

 

The Thesmophoria was another festival held in honour of Demeter, in her

character as presiding over marriage and social institutions resulting from

the spread of agriculture.

 

This festival was celebrated exclusively by women.

 

DIONYSIA.

 

A joyous spring festival was held in honour of Dionysus, in the month of

March, and lasted several days.

 

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This festival, which was called the Greater Dionysia, was celebrated with

particular splendour at Athens, when strangers flocked from all parts of

the world to take part in the ceremonies. The city was gaily decorated, the

houses were garlanded with ivy-leaves, crowds perambulated the streets,

everything wore its holiday garb, and wine was freely indulged in.

 

[Illustration]

 

In the processions which took place during these festivities, the statue of

Dionysus was carried, and men and women, crowned with ivy and bearing the

thyrsus, were dressed in every description of grotesque costume, and played

on drums, pipes, flutes, cymbals, &c. Some representing Silenus rode on

asses, others wearing fawn-skins appeared as Pan or the Satyrs, and the

whole multitude sang pæans in honour of the wine-god. Public shows, games,

and sports took place, and the entire city was full of revelry.

 

What lent additional interest to these festivals was the custom of

introducing new comedies and tragedies to the public, representations of

which were given, and prizes awarded to those which elicited the greatest

admiration.

 

[Illustration]

 

The Lesser Dionysia were vintage festivals, celebrated in rural districts

in the month of November, and were characterized by drinking, feasting, and

joviality of all kinds.

 

In connection with some of the festivals in honour of Dionysus were certain

mystic observances, into which only women, called Menades or Bacchantes,

were initiated. Clad in fawn-skins, they assembled by night on the mountain

sides, {199} some carrying blazing torches, others thyrsi, and all animated

with religious enthusiasm and frenzy. They shouted, clapped their hands,

danced wildly, and worked themselves up to such a pitch of excitement and

fury that in their mad frenzy they tore in pieces the animal brought as a

sacrifice to Dionysus.

 

Under the name of Bacchanalia, these mystic rites were introduced into

Rome, where men also were allowed to participate in them; but they were

attended with such frightful excesses that the state authorities at length

interfered and prohibited them.

 

PANATHENÆA.

 

The Panathenæa was a famous festival celebrated in Athens in honour of

Athene-Polias, the guardian of the state. There were two festivals of this

name, the Lesser and the Greater Panathenæa. The former was held annually,

and the latter, which lasted several days, was celebrated every fourth

year.

 

For the Greater Panathenæa a garment, embroidered with gold, called the

Peplus, was specially woven by Athenian maidens, on which was represented

the victory gained by Athene over the Giants. This garment was suspended to

the mast of a ship which stood outside the city; and during the festival,

which was characterized by a grand procession, the ship (with the Peplus on

its mast) was impelled forward by means of invisible machinery, and formed

the most conspicuous feature of the pageant. The whole population, bearing

olive branches in their hands, took part in the procession; and amidst

music and rejoicings this imposing pageant wended its way to the temple of

Athene-Polias, where the Peplus was deposited on the statue of the goddess.

 

At this festival, Homer's poems were declaimed aloud, and poets also

introduced their own works to the public. Musical contests, foot and horse

races, and wrestling matches were held, and dances were performed by boys

in armour.

 

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Men who had deserved well of their country were presented at the festival

with a crown of gold, and the name of the person so distinguished was

announced publicly by a herald.

 

The victors in the races and athletic games received, as a prize, a vase of

oil, supposed to have been extracted from the fruit of the sacred

olive-tree of Athene.

 

DAPHNEPHORIA.

 

The Daphnephoria was celebrated at Thebes in honour of Apollo every ninth

year.

 

The distinguishing feature of this festival was a procession to the temple

of Apollo, in which a young priest (the Daphnephorus) of noble descent,

splendidly attired and wearing a crown of gold, was preceded by a youth,

carrying an emblematical representation of the sun, moon, stars, and days

of the year, and followed by beautiful maidens bearing laurel branches, and

singing hymns in honour of the god.

 

* * * * *

 

ROMAN FESTIVALS.

 

SATURNALIA.

 

The Saturnalia, a national festival held in December in honour of Saturn,

was celebrated after the ingathering of the harvest, and lasted several

days.

 

It was a time of universal rejoicing, cessation from labour, and

merry-making. School children had holidays, friends sent presents to each

other, the law-courts were closed, and no business was transacted.

 

Crowds of people from the surrounding country flocked to Rome for this

festival attired in every variety of masquerade dress; practical jokes were

given and received with the utmost good humour, shouts of exultation filled

{201} the air, all classes abandoned themselves to enjoyment, and

unrestrained hilarity reigned supreme. Social distinctions were for a time

suspended, or even reversed; and so heartily was the spirit of this

festival entered into, that masters waited upon their slaves at banquets

which they provided for them; the slaves being dressed upon these occasions

in the garments of their masters.

 

There appears little doubt that the modern Carnival is a survival of the

ancient Saturnalia.

 

CEREALIA.

 

This festival was celebrated in honour of Ceres. It was solemnized

exclusively by women, who, dressed in white garments, wandered about with

torches in their hands, to represent the search of the goddess for her

daughter Proserpine.

 

During this festival, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus, to which

none were admitted unless clothed in white.

 

VESTALIA.

 

The Vestalia was a festival held in honour of Vesta on the 9th of June, and

was celebrated exclusively by women, who walked barefooted in procession to

the temple of the goddess.

 

The priestesses of Vesta, called Vestales or Vestal Virgins, played a

conspicuous part in these festivals. They were six in number, and were

chosen--between the ages of six and ten--from the noblest families in Rome.

Their term of office was thirty years. During the first ten years, they

were initiated in their religious duties, during the second ten they

performed them, and during the third they instructed novices. Their chief

duty was to watch and feed the ever-burning flame on the altar of Vesta,

the extinction of which was regarded as a national calamity of ominous

import.

 

{202}

 

Great honours and privileges were accorded to them; the best seats were

reserved for their use at all public spectacles, and even the consuls and

prætors made way for them to pass. If they met a criminal on his way to

execution they had the power to pardon him, provided it could be proved

that the meeting was accidental.

 

The Vestales were vowed to chastity, a violation of which was visited by

the frightful punishment of being buried alive.

 

* * * * *

 

 

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PART II.--LEGENDS.

 

CADMUS.

 

The following is the legendary account of the founding of Thebes:--

 

After the abduction of his daughter Europa by Zeus, Agenor, king of

Phoenicia, unable to reconcile himself to her loss, despatched his son

Cadmus in search of her, desiring him not to return without his sister.

 

For many years Cadmus pursued his search through various countries, but

without success. Not daring to return home without her, he consulted the

oracle of Apollo at Delphi; and the reply was that he must desist from his

task, and take upon himself a new duty, _i.e._ that of founding a city, the

site of which would be indicated to him by a heifer which had never borne

the yoke, and which would lie down on the spot whereon the city was to be

built.

 

Scarcely had Cadmus left the sacred fane, when he observed a heifer who

bore no marks of servitude on her neck, walking slowly in front of him. He

followed the animal for a considerable distance, until at length, on the

site where Thebes afterwards stood, she looked towards heaven and, gently

lowing, lay down in the long grass. Grateful for this mark of divine

favour, Cadmus resolved to offer up the animal as a sacrifice, and

accordingly sent his followers to fetch water for the libation from a

neighbouring spring. This spring, which was sacred to Ares, was situated in

a wood, and guarded by a fierce dragon, who, at the approach of the

retainers of Cadmus, suddenly pounced upon them and killed them.