16. And as it is not accepted, it is altogether disregarded.
Kapila's doctrine, although to be rejected on account of it's being in
conflict with Scripture and sound reasoning, yet recommends itself to
the adherents of the Veda on some accounts--as e.g. its view of the
existence of the effect in the cause. Kanada's theory, on the other hand,
of which no part can be accepted and which is totally destitute of proof,
cannot but be absolutely disregarded by all those who aim at the highest
end of man.--Here terminates the adhikarana of 'the big and long'.
17. Even on the aggregate with its two causes, there is non-
establishment of that.
We so far have refuted the Vaiseshikas, who hold the doctrine of atoms
constituting the general cause. Now the followers of Buddha also teach
that the world originates from atoms, and the Sutras therefore proceed
to declare that on their view also the origination, course, and so on,
of the world cannot rationally be accounted for. These Bauddhas belong
to four different classes. Some of them hold that all outward things,
which are either elements (bhuta) or elemental (bhautika), and all
inward things which are either mind (kitta) or mental (kaitta),--all
these things consisting of aggregates of the atoms of earth, water, fire
and air--are proved by means of Perception as well as Inference. Others
hold that all external things, earth, and so on, are only to be inferred
from ideas (vijnana). Others again teach that the only reality are ideas
to which no outward things correspond; the (so-called) outward things
are like the things seen in dreams. The three schools mentioned agree in
holding that the things admitted by them have a momentary existence only,
and do not allow that, in addition to the things mentioned, viz.
elements and elemental things, mind and mental things, there are certain
further independent entities such as ether, Self, and so on.--Others
finally assert a universal void, i.e. the non-reality of everything.
The Sutras at first dispose of the theory of those who acknowledge the
real existence of external things. Their opinion is as follows. The
atoms of earth which possess the qualities of colour, taste, touch and
smell; the atoms of water which possess the qualities of colour, taste
and touch; the atoms of fire which possess the qualities of colour and
touch; and the atoms of air which possess the quality of touch only,
combine so as to constitute earth, water, fire and air; and out of the
latter there originate the aggregates called bodies, sense-organs, and
objects of sense-organs. And that flow of ideas, which assumes the form
of the imagination of an apprehending agent abiding within the body, is
what constitutes the so-called Self. On the agencies enumerated there
rests the entire empiric world.--On this view the Sutra remarks, 'Even
on the aggregate with its two causes, there is non-establishment of
that'. That aggregate which consists of earth and the other elements and
of which the atoms are the cause; and that further aggregate which
consists of bodies, sense-organs and objects, and of which the elements
are the cause--on neither of these two aggregates with their twofold
causes can there be proved establishment of that, i.e. can the
origination of that aggregate which we call the world be rationally
established. If the atoms as well as earth and the other elements are
held to have a momentary existence only, when, we ask, do the atoms
which perish within a moment, and the elements, move towards combination,
and when do they combine? and when do they become the 'objects of states
of consciousness'? and when do they become the abodes of the activities
of appropriation, avoidance and so on (on the part of agents)? and what
is the cognising Self? and with what objects does it enter into contact
through the sense-organs? and which cognising Self cognises which
objects, and at what time? and which Self proceeds to appropriate which
objects, and at what time? For the sentient subject has perished, and
the object of sensation has perished; and the cognising subject has
perished, and the object cognised has perished. And how can one subject
cognise what has been apprehended through the senses of another? and how
is one subject to take to itself what another subject has cognised? And
should it be said that each stream of cognitions is one (whereby a kind
of unity of the cognising subject is claimed to be established), yet
this affords no sufficient basis for the ordinary notions and activities
of life, since the stream really is nothing different from the
constituent parts of the stream (all of which are momentary and hence
discrete).--That in reality the Ego constitutes the Self and is the
knowing subject, we have proved previously.
18. If it be said that (this) is to be explained through successive
causality; we say 'no,' on account of their not being the causes of
aggregation.
'If it be said that through the successive causality of Nescience and so
on, the formation of aggregates and other matters may be satisfactorily
accounted for.' To explain. Although all the entities (acknowledged by
the Bauddhas) have a merely momentary existence, yet all that is
accounted for by avidya. Avidya means that conception, contrary to
reality, by which permanency, and so on, are ascribed to what is
momentary, and so on. Through avidya there are originated desire,
aversion, &c., which are comprised under the general term 'impression'
(samskara); and from those there springs cognition (vijnana) which
consists in the 'kindling' of mind; from that mind (kitta) and what is
of the nature of mind (kaitta) and the substances possessing colour, and
so on, viz. earth, water, &c. From that again the six sense-organs,
called 'the six abodes'; from that the body, called 'touch' (sparsa);
from that sensation (vedana), and so on. And from that again avidya, and
the whole series as described; so that there is an endlessly revolving
cycle, in which avidya, and so on, are in turn the causes of the links
succeeding them. Now all this is not possible without those aggregates
of the elements and elemental things which are called earth, and so on;
and thereby the rationality of the formation of those aggregates is
proved.
To this the second half of the Sutra replies 'Not so, on account of
(their) not being the causes of aggregation'.--This cannot rationally be
assumed, because avidya, and so on, cannot be operative causes with
regard to the aggregation of earth and the other elements and elemental
things. For avidya, which consists in the view of permanency and so on,
belonging to what is non-permanent, and desire, aversion and the rest,
which are originated by avidya cannot constitute the causes of (other)
momentary things entering into aggregation; not any more than the
mistaken idea of shell-silver is the cause of the aggregation of things
such as shells. Moreover, on the Bauddha doctrine, he who views a
momentary thing as permanent himself perishes at the same moment; who
then is the subject in whom the so-called samskaras, i.e. desire,
aversion, and so on, originate? Those who do not acknowledge one
permanent substance constituting the abode of the samskaras have no
right to assume the continuance of the samskaras.
19. And on account of the cessation of the preceding one on the
origination of the subsequent one.
For the following reason also the origination of the world cannot be
accounted for on the view of the momentariness of all existence. At the
time when the subsequent momentary existence originates, the preceding
momentary existence has passed away, and it cannot therefore stand in a
causal relation towards the subsequent one. For if non-existence had
causal power, anything might originate at any time at any place.--Let it
then be said that what constitutes a cause is nothing else but existence
in a previous moment.--But, if this were so, the previous momentary
existence of a jar, let us say, would be the cause of all things
whatever that would be met with in this threefold world in the
subsequent moment-cows, buffaloes, horses, chairs, stones, &c.!--Let us
then say that a thing existing in a previous moment is the cause only of
those things, existing in the subsequent moment, which belong to the
same species.--But from this again it would follow that one jar existing
in the previous moment would be the cause of all jars, to be met with in
any place, existing in the following moment!--Perhaps you mean to say
that one thing is the cause of one subsequent thing only. But how then
are we to know which thing is the cause of which one subsequent thing?--
Well then I say that the momentarily existing jar which exists in a
certain place is the cause of that one subsequent momentary jar only
which exists at the very same place!--Very good, then you hold that a
place is something permanent! (while yet your doctrine is that there is
nothing permanent).--Moreover as, on your theory, the thing which has
entered into contact with the eye or some other sense-organ does no
longer exist at the time when the idea originates, nothing can ever be
the object of a cognition.
20. There not being (a cause), there results contradiction of the
admitted principle; otherwise simultaneousness.
If it be said that the effect may originate even when a cause does not
exist, then--as we have pointed out before--anything might originate
anywhere and at any time. And not only would the origination of the
effect thus remain unexplained, but an admitted principle would also be
contradicted. For you hold the principle that there are four causes
bringing about the origination of a cognition, viz. the adhipati-cause,
the sahakari-cause, the alambhana-cause, and the samanantara-cause. The
term adhipati denotes the sense-organs.--And if, in order to avoid
opposition to an acknowledged principle, it be assumed that the
origination of a further momentary jar takes place at the time when the
previous momentary jar still exists, then it would follow that the two
momentary jars, the causal one and the effected one, would be perceived
together; but as a matter of fact they are not so perceived. And,
further, the doctrine of general momentariness would thus be given up.
And should it be said that (this is not so, but that) momentariness
remains, it would follow that the connexion of the sense-organ with the
object and the cognition are simultaneous.
21. There is non-establishment of pratisankhya and apratisankhya
destruction, on account of non-interruption.
So far the hypothesis of origination from that which is not has been
refuted. The present Sutra now goes on to declare that also the absolute
(niranvaya) destruction of that which is cannot rationally be
demonstrated. Those who maintain the momentariness of all things teach
that there are two kinds of destruction, one of a gross kind, which
consists in the termination of a series of similar momentary existences,
and is capable of being perceived as immediately resulting from agencies
such as the blow of a hammer (breaking a jar, e.g.); and the other of a
subtle kind, not capable of being perceived, and taking place in a
series of similar momentary existences at every moment. The former is
called pratisankhya-destruction; the latter apratisankhya-destruction.--
Both these kinds of destruction are not possible.--Why?--On account of
the non-interruption, i.e. on account of the impossibility of the
complete destruction of that which is. The impossibility of such
destruction was proved by us under II, 1, 14, where we showed that
origination and destruction mean only the assumption of new states on
the part of one and the same permanent substance, and therefrom proved
the non-difference of the effect from the cause.--Here it may possibly
be objected that as we see that a light when extinguished passes away
absolutely, such absolute destruction may be inferred in other cases
also. But against this we point out that in the case of a vessel of clay
being smashed we perceive that the material, i.e. clay, continues to
exist, and that therefrom destruction is ascertained to be nothing else
but the passing over of a real substance into another state. The proper
assumption, therefore, is that the extinguished light also has passed
over into a different state, and that in that state it is no longer
perceptible may be explained by that state being an extremely subtle one.
22. And on account of the objections presenting themselves in either
case.
It has been shown that neither origination from nothing, as held by the
advocates of general momentariness, is possible; nor the passing away
into nothing on the part of the thing originated. The acknowledgment of
either of these views gives rise to difficulties. If the effect
originates from nothing, it is itself of the nature of nothing; for it
is observed that effects share the nature of what they originate from.
Pitchers and ornaments, e.g. which are produced from clay and gold
respectively, possess the nature of their causal substances. But you
hold yourself that the world is not seen to be of the nature of
nothingness; and certainly it is not observed to be so.--Again, if that
which is underwent absolute destruction, it would follow that after one
moment the entire world would pass away into nothingness; and
subsequently the world again originating from nothingness, it would
follow that, as shown above, it would itself be of the nature of
nothingness (i.e. there would no longer be a _real_ world).--There being
thus difficulties on both views, origination and destruction cannot take
place as described by you.
23. And in the case of space also, on account of there being no
difference.
In order to prove the permanency of external and internal things, we
have disproved the view that the two forms of destruction called
pratisankhya and apratisankhya mean reduction of an existing thing to
nothing. This gives us an opportunity to disprove the view of
Ether (space) being likewise a mere irrational non-entity, as the
Bauddhas hold it to be. Ether cannot be held to be a mere irrational non-
entity, because, like those things which are admitted to be positive
existences, i.e. earth, and so on, it is proved by consciousness not
invalidated by any means of proof. For the formation of immediate
judgments such as 'here a hawk flies, and there a vulture,' implies our
being conscious of ether as marking the different places of the flight
of the different birds. Nor is it possible to hold that Space is nothing
else but the non-existence (abhava) of earth, and so on; for this view
collapses as soon as set forth in definite alternatives. For whether we
define Space as the antecedent and subsequent non-existence of earth,
and so on, or as their mutual non-existence, or as their absolute non-
existence--on none of these alternatives we attain the proper idea of
Space. If, in the first place, we define it as the antecedent and
subsequent non-existence of earth, and so on, it will follow that, as
the idea of Space can thus not be connected with earth and other things
existing at the present moment, the whole world is without Space.
If, in the second place, we define it as the mutual non-existence of
earth, and so on, it will follow that, as such mutual non-existence
inheres in the things only which stand towards each other in the
relation of mutual non-existence, there is no perception of Space in the
intervals between those things (while as a matter of fact there is). And,
in the third place, absolute non-existence of earth, and so on, cannot
of course be admitted. And as non-existence (abhava) is clearly
conceived as a special state of something actually existing, Space even
if admitted to be of the nature of abhava, would not on that account be
a futile non-entity (something 'tukcha' or 'nirupakhya').
24. And on account of recognition.
We return to the proof of the, previously mooted, permanence of things.
The 'anusmriti' of the Sutra means cognition of what was previously
perceived, i.e. recognition. It is a fact that all things which were
perceived in the past may be recognised, such recognition expressing
itself in the form 'this is just that (I knew before).' Nor must you say
that this is a mere erroneous assumption of oneness due to the fact of
the thing now perceived being similar to the thing perceived before, as
in the case of the flame (where a succession of flames continually
produced anew is mistaken for one continuous flame); for you do not
admit that there is one permanent knowing subject that could have that
erroneous idea. What one person has perceived, another cannot judge to
be the same as, or similar to, what he is perceiving himself. If
therefore you hold that there is an erroneous idea of oneness due to the
perception of similarity residing in different things perceived at
different times, you necessarily must acknowledge oneness on the part of
the cognising subject. In the case of the flame there is a valid means
of knowledge to prove that there really is a succession of similar
flames, but in the case of the jar, we are not aware of such a means,
and we therefore have no right to assume that recognition is due to the
similarity of many successive jars.---Perhaps you will here argue as
follows. The momentariness of jars and the like is proved by Perception
as well as Inference. Perception in the first place presents as its
object the present thing which is different from non-present things, in
the same way as it presents the blue thing as different from the yellow;
it is in this way that we know the difference of the present thing from
the past and the future. Inference again proceeds as follows--jars and
the like are momentary because they produce effects and have existence
(sattva); what is non-momentary, such as the horn of a hare, does not
produce effects and does not possess existence. We therefore conclude
from the existence of the last momentary jar that the preceding jar-
existences also are perishable, just because they are momentary
existences like the existence of the last jar.--But both this perception
and this inference have already been disproved by what was said above
about the impossibility of momentary existences standing to one another
in the relation of cause and effect. Moreover, that difference of the
present object from the non-present object which is intimated by
Perception does not prove the present object to be a different _thing_
(from the past object of Perception), but merely its being connected with
the present time. This does not prove it to be a different thing, for
the same thing can be connected with different times. The two reasons
again which were said to prove the momentariness of jars are invalid
because they may be made to prove just the contrary of what they are
alleged to prove. For we may argue as follows--From existence and from
their having effects it follows that jars, and so on, are permanent; for
whatever is non-permanent, is non-existent, and does not produce effects,
as e.g. the horn of a hare. The capacity of producing effects can in
fact be used only to prove non-momentariness on the part of jars, and so
on; for as things perishing within a moment are not capable of acting,
they are not capable of producing effects. Further, as it is seen in the
case of the last momentary existence that its destruction is due to a
visible cause (viz. the blow of a hammer or the like), the proper
conclusion is that also the other momentary jars (preceding the last
one) require visible causes for their destruction; and (as no such causes
are seen, it follows that) the jar is permanent and continuous up to the
time when a destructive cause, such as the blow of a hammer, supervenes.
Nor can it be said that hammers and the like are not the causes of
destruction, but only the causes of the origination of a new series of
momentary existences dissimilar to the former ones--in the case of the
jar, e.g. of a series of momentary fragments of a jar; for we have
proved before that the destruction of jars, and so on, means nothing but
their passing over into a different condition, e.g. that of fragments.
And even if destruction were held to be something different from the
origination of fragments, it would yet be reasonable to infer, on the
ground of immediate succession in time, that the cause of the
destruction is the blow of the hammer.
Hence it is impossible to deny in any way the permanency of things as
proved by the fact of recognition. He who maintains that recognition
which has for its object the oneness of a thing connected with
successive points of time has for its objects different things, might as
well say that several cognitions of, let us say, blue colour have for
their object something different from blue colour. Moreover, for him who
maintains the momentariness of the cognising subject and of the objects
of cognition, it would be difficult indeed to admit the fact of
Inference which presupposes the ascertainment and remembrance of general
propositions. He would in fact not be able to set forth the reason
required to prove his assertion that things are momentary; for the
speaker perishes in the very moment when he states the proposition to be
proved, and another person is unable to complete what has been begun by
another and about which he himself does not know anything.
25. Not from non-entity, this not being observed.
So far we have set forth the arguments refuting the views of the
Vaibhashikas as well as the Sautrantikas--both which schools maintain
the reality of external things.--Now the Sautrantika comes forward and
opposes one of the arguments set forth by us above, viz. that, on the
view of general momentariness, nothing can ever become an object of
cognition, since the thing which enters into connexion with the sense-
organ is no longer in existence when the cognition originates.--It is
not, he says, the persistence of the thing up to the time of cognition
which is the cause of its becoming an object of cognition. To be an
object of cognition means nothing more than to be the cause of the
origination of cognition. Nor does this definition imply that the sense-
organs also are the objects of cognition. For a cause of cognition is
held to be an object of cognition only in so far as it imparts to the
cognition its own form (and this the sense-organs do not). Now even a
thing that has perished may have imparted its form to the cognition, and
on the basis of that form, blue colour, and so on, the thing itself is
inferred. Nor can it be said (as the Yogakaras do) that the form of
subsequent cognitions is due to the action of previous cognitions (and
not to the external thing); for on this hypothesis it could not be
explained how in the midst of a series of cognitions of blue colour
there all at once arises the cognition of yellow colour. The manifold
character of cognitions must therefore be held to be due to the manifold
character of real thing.--To this we reply 'not from non-entity; this
not being observed.' The special forms of cognition, such as blue colour,
and so on, cannot be the forms of things that have perished, and
therefore are not in Being, since this is not observed. For it is not
observed that when a substrate of attributes has perished, its
attributes pass over into another thing. (Nor can it be said that the
thing that perished leaves in cognition a reflection of itself, for)
reflections also are only of persisting things, not of mere attributes.
We therefore conclude that the manifoldness of cognitions can result
from the manifoldness of things only on the condition of the thing
persisting at the time of cognition.--The Sutras now set forth a further
objection which applies to both schools.
26. And thus there would be accomplishment on the part of non-active
people also.
Thus, i.e. on the theory of universal momentariness, origination from
the non-existent, causeless cognition, and so on, it would follow that
persons also not making any efforts may accomplish all their ends. It is
a fact that the attainment of things desired and the warding off of
things not desired is effected through effort, and so on. But if all
existences momentarily perish, a previously existing thing, or special
attributes of it, such as after-effects (through which Svarga and the
like are effected) or knowledge (through which Release is effected) do
not persist, and hence nothing whatever can be accomplished by effort.
And as thus all effects would be accomplished without a cause, even
perfectly inert men would accomplish all the ends to be reached in this
and in the next life, including final release. Here terminates the
adhikarana of 'the aggregates.'
27. Not non-existence, on account of consciousness.
Here now come forward the Yogakaras, who hold that cognitions (ideas)
only are real. There is no reasonable ground, they say, for the view
that the manifoldness of ideas is due to the manifoldness of things,
since ideas themselves--no less than the things assumed by others--have
their distinct forms, and hence are manifold. And this manifold nature
of ideas is sufficiently explained by so-called vasana. Vasana means a
flow of ideas (states of consciousness--pratyaya) of different character.
We observe, e.g., that a cognition which has the form of a jar (i.e. the
idea of a jar) gives rise to the cognition of the two halves of a jar,
and is itself preceded and produced by the cognition of a jar, and this
again by a similar cognition, and so on; this is what we call a stream
or flow of ideas.--But how, then, is it that internal cognitions have
the forms of external things, mustard-grains, mountains, and so on?--
Even if real things are admitted, the Yogakara replies, their becoming
objects of thought and speech depends altogether on the light of
knowledge, for otherwise it would follow that there is no difference
between the objects known by oneself and those known by others. And that
cognitions thus shining forth to consciousness have forms (distinctive
characteristics) must needs be admitted; for if they were without form
they could not shine forth. Now we are conscious only of one such form,
viz. that of the cognition; that this form at the same time appears to
us as something external (i.e. as the form of an outward thing) is due
to error. From the general law that we are conscious of ideas and things
together only, it follows that the thing is not something different from
the idea.
As, moreover, the fact of one idea specially representing one particular
thing only, whether it be a jar or a piece of cloth or anything else,
requires for its explanation an equality in character of the idea and
the thing, those also who hold the existence of external things must
needs assume that the idea has a form similar to that of the thing; and
as this suffices for rendering possible practical thought and
intercourse, there is nothing authorising us to assume the existence of
things in addition to the ideas. Hence cognitions only constitute
reality; external things do not exist.
To this the Sutra replies, 'Not non-existence, on account of
consciousness.' The non-existence of things, apart from ideas, cannot be
maintained, because we are conscious of cognitions as what renders the
knowing subject capable of thought and intercourse with regard to
particular _things_. For the consciousness of all men taking part in
worldly life expresses itself in forms such as 'I know the jar.'
Knowledge of this kind, as everybody's consciousness will testify,
presents itself directly as belonging to a knowing subject and referring
to an object; those therefore who attempt to prove, on the basis of this
very knowledge, that Reality is constituted by mere knowledge, are fit
subjects for general derision. This point has already been set forth in
detail in our refutation of those crypto-Bauddhas who take shelter under
a pretended Vedic theory.--To maintain, as the Yogakaras do, that the
general rule of idea and thing presenting themselves together proves the
non-difference of the thing from the idea, implies a self-contradiction;
for 'going together' can only be where there are different things. To
hold that it is a general rule that of the idea--the essential nature of
which is to make the thing to which it refers capable of entering into
common thought and intercourse--we are always conscious together with
the thing, and then to prove therefrom that the thing is not different
from the idea, is a laughable proceeding indeed. And as, according to
you, cognitions perish absolutely, and do not possess any permanently
persisting aspect, it is rather difficult to prove that such cognitions
form a series in which each member colours or affects the next one
(vasana); for how is the earlier cognition, which has absolutely
perished, to affect the later one, which has not yet arisen? We conclude
therefore that the manifoldness of cognitions is due solely to the
manifoldness of things. We are directly conscious of cognitions (ideas)
as rendering the things to which they refer capable of being dealt with
by ordinary thought and speech, and the specific character of each
cognition thus depends on the relation which connects it with a
particular thing. This relation is of the nature of conjunction
(samyoga), since knowledge (cognition) also is a substance. Just as
light (prabha), although a substance, stands to the lamp in the relation
of an attribute (guna), so knowledge stands in the relation of an
attribute to the Self, but, viewed in itself, it is a substance.--From
all this it follows that external things are not non-existent.
The next Sutra refutes the opinion of those who attempt to prove the
baselessness of the cognitions of the waking state by comparing them to
the cognitions of a dreaming person.
28. And on account of difference of nature (they are) not like dreams.
Owing to the different nature of dream-cognitions, it cannot be said
that, like them, the cognitions of the waking state also have no things
to correspond to them. For dream-cognitions are originated by organs
impaired by certain defects, such as drowsiness, and are moreover
sublated by the cognitions of the waking state; while the cognitions of
the waking state are of a contrary nature. There is thus no equality
between the two sets.--Moreover, if all cognitions are empty of real
content, you are unable to prove what you wish to prove since your
inferential cognition also is devoid of true content. If, on the other
hand, it be held to have a real content, then it follows that no
cognition is devoid of such content; for all of them are alike
cognitions, just like the inferential cognition.
29. The existence (is) not, on account of the absence of perception.
The existence of mere cognitions devoid of corresponding things is not
possible, because such are nowhere perceived. For we nowhere perceive
cognitions not inherent in a cognising subject and not referring to
objects. That even dream-cognitions are not devoid of real matter we
have explained in the discussion of the different khyatis (above, p.
118).--Here terminates the adhikarana of 'perception.'
30. And on account of its being unproved in every way.
Here now come forward the Madhyamikas who teach that there is nothing
but a universal Void. This theory of a universal Nothing is the real
purport of Sugata's doctrine; the theories of the momentariness of all
existence, &c., which imply the acknowledgment of the reality of things,
were set forth by him merely as suiting the limited intellectual
capacities of his pupils.--Neither cognitions nor external objects have
real existence; the Void (the 'Nothinj') only constitutes Reality, and
final Release means passing over into Non-being. This is the real view
of Buddha, and its truth is proved by the following considerations. As
the Nothing is not to be proved by any argument, it is self-proved. For
a cause has to be assigned for that only which _is_. But what _is_ does
not originate either from that which is or that which is not. We never
observe that which is to originate from Being; for things such as jars,
and so on, do not originate as long as the lump of clay, &c., is non-
destroyed. Nor can Being originate from Non-being; for if the jar were
supposed to originate from Non-being, i.e. that non-being which results
from the destruction of the lump of clay, it would itself be of the
nature of Non-being. Similarly it can be shown that nothing can
originate either from itself or from anything else. For the former
hypothesis would imply the vicious procedure of the explanation
presupposing the thing to be explained; and moreover no motive can be
assigned for a thing originating from itself. And on the hypothesis of
things originating from other things, it would follow that anything
might originate from anything, for all things alike are _other_ things.
And as thus there is no origination there is also no destruction. Hence
the _Nothing_ constitutes Reality: origination, destruction, Being, Non-
being, and so on, are mere illusions (bhranti). Nor must it be said that
as even an illusion cannot take place without a substrate we must assume
something real to serve as a substrate; for in the same way as an
illusion may arise even when the defect, the abode of the defect, and
the knowing subject are unreal, it also may arise even when the
substrate of the illusion is unreal. Hence the _Nothing_ is the only
reality.--To this the Sutra replies, 'And on account of its being in
everyway unproved'--the theory of general Nothingness which you hold
cannot stand. Do you hold that everything is being or non-being, or
anything else? On none of these views the Nothingness maintained by you
can be established. For the terms _being_ and _non-being_ and the ideas
expressed by them are generally understood to refer to particular
states of actually _existing_ things only. If therefore you declare
'everything is nothing,' your declaration is equivalent to the
declaration, 'everything is being,' for your statement also can only
mean that everything that _exists_ is capable of abiding in a certain
condition (which you call 'Nothing'). The absolute Nothingness you have
in mind cannot thus be established in any way. Moreover, he who tries to
establish the tenet of universal Nothingness can attempt this in so far
only as,--through some means of knowledge, he has come to know
Nothingness, and he must therefore acknowledge the truth of that means.
For if it were not true it would follow that everything is real. The
view of general Nothingness is thus altogether incapable of proof.--Here
terminates the adhikarana of 'unprovedness in every way.'
31. Not so, on account of the impossibility in one.
The Bauddhas have been refuted. As now the Jainas also hold the view of
the world originating from atoms and similar views, their theory is
reviewed next.--The Jainas hold that the world comprises souls (jiva),
and non-souls (ajiva), and that there is no Lord. The world further
comprises six substances (dravya), viz. souls (jiva), merit (dharma),
demerit (adharma), bodies (pudgala), time (kala), and space (akasa). The
souls are of three different kinds-bound (in the state of bondage),
perfected by Yoga (Yogasiddha), and released (mukta). 'Merit' is that
particular world-pervading substance which is the cause of the motion of
all things moving; 'demerit' is that all-pervading substance which is
the cause of stationariness, 'Body' is that substance which possesses
colour, smell, taste, and touch. It is of two kinds, atomic or
compounded of atoms; to the latter kind belong wind, fire, water, earth,
the bodies of living creatures, and so on. 'Time' is a particular atomic
substance which is the cause of the current distinction of past, present,
and future. 'Space' is one, and of infinite extent. From among these
substances those which are not atomic are comprehended under the term
'the five astikayas (existing bodies)'--the astikaya of souls, the
astikaya of merit, the astikaya of demerit, the astikaya of matter, the
astikaya of space. This term 'astikaya' is applied to substances
occupying several parts of space.--They also use another division of
categories which subserves the purpose of Release; distinguishing souls,
non-souls, influx (asrava), bondage, nijara, samvara, and Release.
_Release_ comprises the means of Release also, viz. perfect knowledge,
good conduct, and so on. The soul is that which has knowledge, seeing,
pleasure, strength (virya) for its qualities. Non-soul is the aggregate
of the things enjoyed by the souls. 'Influx' is whatever is instrumental
towards the souls having the fruition of objects, viz. the sense-organs,
and so on.--Bondage is of eight different kinds, comprising the four
ghatikarman, and the four aghatikarman. The former term denotes whatever
obstructs the essential qualities of the soul, viz. knowledge,
intuition, strength, pleasure; the latter whatever causes pleasure,
pain, and indifference, which are due to the persistence of the wrong
imagination that makes the soul identify itself with its body.--'Decay'
means the austerities (tapas), known from the teaching of the Arhat,
which are the means of Release.--Samvara is such deep meditation
(Samadhi) as stops the action of the sense-organs.--Release, finally, is
the manifestation of the Self in its essential nature, free from all
afflictions such as passion, and so on.--The atoms which are the causes
of earth and the other compounds, are not, as the Vaiseshikas and others
hold, of four different kinds, but have all the same nature; the
distinctive qualities of earth, and so on, are due to a modification
(parinama) of the atoms. The Jainas further hold that the whole complex
of things is of an ambiguous nature in so far as being existent and
non-existent, permanent and non-permanent, separate and non-separate. To
prove this they apply their so-called sapta-bhangi-nyaya ('the system of
the seven paralogisms')--'May be, it is'; 'May be, it is not'; 'May be,
it is and is not'; 'May be, it is not predicable'; 'May be, it is and is
not predicable'; 'May be, it is not, and is not predicable'; 'May be, it
is and is not, and is not predicable.' With the help of this they prove
that all things--which they declare to consist of substance (dravya),
and paryaya--to be existing, one and permanent in so far as they are
substances, and the opposite in so far as they are paryayas. By paryaya
they understand the particular states of substances, and as those are of
the nature of Being as well as Non-being, they manage to prove
existence, non-existence, and so on.--With regard to this the Sutra
remarks that no such proof is possible,'Not so, on account of the
impossibility in one'; i.e. because contradictory attributes such as
existence and non-existence cannot at the same time belong to one
thing, not any more than light and darkness. As a substance and
particular states qualifying it--and (by the Jainas), called
paryaya--are different things (padartha), one substance cannot be
connected with opposite attributes. It is thus not possible that a
substance qualified by one particular state, such as existence, should
at the same time be qualified by the opposite state, i. e.
non-existence. The non-permanency, further, of a substance consists in
its being the abode of those particular states which are called
origination and destruction; how then should permanency, which is of an
opposite nature, reside in the substance at the same time? Difference
(bhinnatva) again consists in things being the abodes of contradictory
attributes; non-difference, which is the opposite of this, cannot hence
possibly reside in the same things which are the abode of difference;
not any more than the generic character of a horse and that of a buffalo
can belong to one animal. We have explained this matter at length,
when--under Sutra I, 1--refuting the bhedabheda-theory. Time we are
conscious of only as an attribute of substances (not as an independent
substance), and the question as to its being and non-being, and so on,
does not therefore call for a separate discussion. To speak of time as
being and non-being in no way differs from generic characteristics
(jati), and so on, being spoken of in the same way; for--as we have
explained before--of jati and the like we are conscious only as
attributes of substances.--But (the Jaina may here be supposed to ask
the Vedantin), how can you maintain that Brahman, although one only, yet
at the same time is the Self of all?--Because, we reply, the whole
aggregate of sentient and non-sentient beings constitutes the body of
the Supreme Person, omniscient, omnipotent, and so on. And that the body
and the person embodied and their respective attributes are of totally
different nature (so that Brahman is not touched by the defects of his
body), we have explained likewise.--Moreover, as your six substances,
soul, and so on, are not one substance and one paryaya, their being one
substance, and so on, cannot be used to prove their being one and also
not one, and so on.--And if it should be said that those six substances
are such (viz. one and several, and so on), each owing to its own
paryaya and its own nature, we remark that then you cannot avoid
contradicting your own theory of everything being of an ambiguous
nature. Things which stand to each other in the relation of mutual
non-existence cannot after all be identical.--Hence the theory of the
Jainas is not reasonable. Moreover it is liable to the same objections
which we have above set forth as applying to all theories of atoms
constituting the universal cause, without the guidance of a Lord.
33. And likewise non-entireness of the Self.
On your view there would likewise follow non-entireness of the Self. For
your opinion is that souls abide in numberless places, each soul having
the same size as the body which it animates. When, therefore, the soul
previously abiding in the body of an elephant or the like has to enter
into a body of smaller size, e. g. that of an ant, it would follow that
as the soul then occupies less space, it would not remain entire, but
would become incomplete.--Let us then avoid this difficulty by assuming
that the soul passes over into a different state--which process is
called paryaya,--which it may manage because it is capable of
contraction and dilatation.--To this the next Sutra replies.
34. Nor also is there non-contradiction from paryaya; on account of
change, and so on.
Nor is the difficulty to be evaded by the assumption of the soul
assuming a different condition through contraction or dilatation. For
this would imply that the soul is subject to change, and all the
imperfections springing from it, viz. non-permanence, and so on, and
hence would not be superior to non-sentient things such as jars and the
like.
35. And on account of the endurance of the final (size), and the
(resulting) permanency of both; there is no difference.
The final size of the soul, i.e. the size it has in the state of Release,
is enduring since the soul does not subsequently pass into another body;
and both, i.e. the soul in the state of Release and the size of that
soul, are permanent (nitya). From this it follows that that ultimate
size is the true essential size of the soul and also belongs to it
previously to Release. Hence there is no difference of sizes, and the
soul cannot therefore have the size of its temporary bodies. The Arhata
theory is therefore untenable.--Here terminates the adhikarana of 'the
impossibility in one.'
36. (The system) of the Lord (must be disregarded), on account of
inappropriateness.
So far it has been shown that the doctrines of Kapila, Kanada, Sugata,
and the Arhat must be disregarded by men desirous of final beatitude;
for those doctrines are all alike untenable and foreign to the Veda. The
Sutras now declare that, for the same reasons, the doctrine of Pasupati
also has to be disregarded. The adherents of this view belong to four
different classes--Kapalas, Kalamukhas, Pasupatas, and Saivas. All of
them hold fanciful theories of Reality which are in conflict with the
Veda, and invent various means for attaining happiness in this life and
the next. They maintain the general material cause and the operative
cause to be distinct, and the latter cause to be constituted by Pasupati.
They further hold the wearing of the six so-called 'mudra' badges and
the like to be means to accomplish the highest end of man.
Thus the Kapalas say, 'He who knows the true nature of the six mudras,
who understands the highest mudra, meditating on himself as in the
position called bhagasana, reaches Nirvana. The necklace, the golden
ornament, the earring, the head-jewel, ashes, and the sacred thread are
called the six mudras. He whose body is marked with these is not born
here again.'--Similarly the Kalamukhas teach that the means for
obtaining all desired results in this world as well as the next are
constituted by certain practices--such as using a skull as a drinking
vessel, smearing oneself with the ashes of a dead body, eating the flesh
of such a body, carrying a heavy stick, setting up a liquor-jar and
using it as a platform for making offerings to the gods, and the like.
'A bracelet made of Rudraksha-seeds on the arm, matted hair on the head,
a skull, smearing oneself with ashes, &c.'--all this is well known from
the sacred writings of the Saivas. They also hold that by some special
ceremonial performance men of different castes may become Brahmanas and
reach the highest asrama: 'by merely entering on the initiatory ceremony
(diksha) a man becomes a Brahmana at once; by undertaking the kapala
rite a man becomes at once an ascetic.'
With regard to these views the Sutra says 'of pati, on account of
inappropriateness.' A 'not' has here to be supplied from Sutra 32. The
system of Pasupati has to be disregarded because it is inappropriate, i.
e. because the different views and practices referred to are opposed to
one another and in conflict with the Veda. The different practices
enumerated above, the wearing of the six mudras and so on, are opposed
to each other; and moreover the theoretical assumptions of those people,
their forms of devotion and their practices, are in conflict with the
Veda. For the Veda declares that Narayana who is the highest Brahman is
alone the operative and the substantial cause of the world, 'Narayana is
the highest Brahman, Narayana is the highest Reality, Narayana is the
highest light, Narayana is the highest Self'; 'That thought, may I be
many, may I grow forth' (Ch. Up. VI, 2, 3); 'He desired, may I be many,
may I grow forth' (Taitt. Up. II, 6, 1), and so on. In the same way the
texts declare meditation on the Supreme Person, who is the highest
Brahman, to be the only meditation which effects final release; cp. 'I
know that great Person of sunlike lustre beyond the darkness. A man who
knows him passes over death; there is no other path to go' (Svet. Up.
III, 8). And in the same way all texts agree in declaring that the works
subserving the knowledge of Brahman are only those sacrificial and other
works which the Veda enjoins on men in the different castes and stages
of life: 'Him Brahmanas seek to know by the study of the Veda, by
sacrifice, by gifts, by penance, by fasting. Wishing for that world only,
mendicants wander forth from their homes' (Bri. Up. XI, 4, 22). In some
texts enjoining devout meditation, and so on, we indeed meet with terms
such as Prajapati, Siva, Indra, Akasa, Prana, &c., but that these all
refer to the supreme Reality established by the texts concerning
Narayana--the aim of which texts it is to set forth the highest Reality
in its purity--, we have already proved under I, 1, 30. In the same way
we have proved under Su. I, 1, 2 that in texts treating of the creation
of the world, such as 'Being only this was in the beginning,' and the
like, the words _Being_, _Brahman_, and so on, denote nobody else but
Narayana, who is set forth as the universal creator in the account of
creation given in the text, 'Alone indeed there was Narayana, not Brahma,
not Isana--he being alone did not rejoice' (Mahopanishad I).--As the Pasupati theory thus teaches principles, meditations and acts conflicting with the Veda, it must be disregarded. |
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