The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America 57

The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America 57

Retrospect_

 

 

In view of the inclusion of skin boats in this discussion of bark

canoes, it may be well to emphasize again the fact that the North

American Indian's method of constructing bark canoes and of temporary

skin canoes was on an entirely different principle than that used by

the Eskimo in building their skin boats. This is even true of the

kayak-form bark canoes of the Northwest, despite their superficial

similarity in design and proportions to the Eskimo skin kayak.

 

As has been stated, the Eskimo construction required a rigid frame,

with all members fastened together with lashings and pegs, the skin

cover being merely the watertight envelope and not a strength member.

This system of construction marks primitive skin-boat design in most

parts of the world. The Indian bark construction, on the other hand,

did not have a rigid frame, and all but a few of the structural members

were held in place by pressure alone: the sheathing was held against

the bark cover by pressure of the ribs; the stem-pieces, in most cases,

were held in place by pressure of the ribs, gunwale sheering, or

headboards. In fact without the bark cover in place, the greater part

of the wooden structure of the bark canoe would collapse. Not only was

the bark cover the fundamental basis of construction, it was to a great

extent a strength member, though by clever design the loading of the

bark was minimized.

 

This fundamental difference in construction must be recognized in

comparisons of Eskimo and North American Indian watercraft. Here, too,

it might be observed that one should view with skepticism any claim

that widespread similarity of certain structural practices is evidence

of some ancient connection between types of canoes. In most cases

these similarities were imposed by the working characteristics of the

materials employed. Similarly, limitations in materials available for

construction have their effect upon building techniques.

 

The practice of employing pressure members in bark-canoe construction,

particularly where birch bark was employed, was the result of the need

to stretch this material by gentle and widespread pressure, whereas the

skin cover could be stretched by the concentrated pull of stitching

alone, or by force applied in a small area. Bark canoes built in areas

where skin-kayak construction is carried on nearby show a greater

rigidity of structure. Thus, in the lower Yukon Valley in Alaska the

bottom frame of the canoes built there was a rigidly constructed unit,

even though the side longitudinals were held in place by rib pressure

alone. And it is reasonable to theorize that the Malecite, who through

habit still employed bark-canoe construction practices in building

their skin craft, would have eventually come to the Eskimo method of

construction had conditions required them to use skins exclusively.

 

[Illustration: Figure 213

 

LARGE MOOSE-HIDE CANOE of upper Gravel River, Mackenzie valley.

(_Photo, George M. Douglas._)]

 

 

 

 

_Appendix_

 

The Kayak Roll _John D. Heath_

 

 

The most extraordinary feat of kayak handling is the ability to right

the craft after a capsize. This maneuver, called "rolling," is usually

practiced by capsizing on one side and recovering on the other. Under

emergency conditions, a kayaker will recover on whichever side is

more convenient. When rolling, a kayaker wears a waterproof jacket

having long sleeves and a hood. The waist, face, and wrist openings

are fitted with drawstrings, so that when the waist opening is fitted

over the cockpit rim, the kayak and kayaker become a waterproof unit.

Thus equipped, the kayak is the most seaworthy craft of its size, this

quality being limited only by the skill and stamina of the kayaker.

 

The art of kayak rolling was highly developed in Alaska and Greenland.

Eskimos in both of these regions depended upon seal hunting by kayak

as a major part of their economy, hence the ability to roll was an

important means of survival. Very little detailed information exists

regarding Alaskan kayakers, but the Greenlanders have been the object

of intensive study by ethnographers and explorers. The earliest

detailed record of rolling was that of David Crantz, a European

missionary, who in 1767 enumerated ten methods of rolling in his

_History of Greenland_.[7] His description follows.

 

[7] See bibliography.

 

1. The Greenlander lays himself first on one side, then on the

other, with his body flat upon the water, (to imitate the case of

one who is nearly, but not quite overset) and keeps the balance

with his _pautik_ or oar, so that he raises himself again.

 

2. He overturns himself quite, so that his head hangs perpendicular

underwater; in this dreadful posture he gives himself a swing with

a stroke of his paddle, and raises himself aloft again on which

side he will.

 

These are the most common cases of misfortune, which frequently

occur in storms and high waves; but they still suppose that the

Greenlander retains the advantage of his _pautik_ in his hand, and

is disentangled from the seal-leather strap. But it may easily

happen in the seal-fishery, that the man becomes entangled with

the string, so that he either cannot rightly use the _pautik_, or

that he loses it entirely. Therefore they must be prepared for this

casualty. With this view

 

3. They run one end of the _pautik_ under one of the cross-strings

of the kajak, (to imitate its being entangled) overset, and

scrabble up again by means of the artful motion of the other end of

the _pautik_.

 

4. They hold one end of it in their mouth, and yet move the other

end with their hand, so as to rear themselves upright again.

 

5. They lay the _pautik_ behind their neck, and hold it there with

both hands, or,

 

6. Hold it fast behind their back; so overturn, and by stirring it

with both their hands behind them, without bringing it before, rise

and recover.

 

7. They lay it across one shoulder, take hold of it with one hand

before, and the other behind their back, and thus emerge from the

deep.

 

These exercises are of service in cases where the _pautik_ is

entangled with the string; but because they may also quite lose it,

in which the greatest danger lies, therefore,

 

8. Another exercise is, to run the _pautik_ through the water under

the kajak, hold it fast on both sides with their face lying on the

kajak, in this position overturn, and rise again by moving the oar

_secundum artem_ on the top of the water from beneath. This is of

service when they lose the oar during the oversetting, and yet see

it swimming over them, to learn to manage it with both hands from

below.

 

9. They let the oar go, turn themselves head down, reach their hand

after it, and from the surface pull it down to them, and so rebound

up.

 

10. But if they can't possibly reach it, they take either the

hand-board off from the harpoon, or a knife, and try by the force

of these, or even splashing the water with the palm of their hand,

to swing themselves above water; but this seldom succeeds.

 

[Illustration: Figure 214

 

THE STANDARD GREENLAND ROLL

 

The solid lines represent the starting position for a clockwise

roll (disregard the phantom lines until later). The paddle is held

blade-on-edge along the starboard gunwale, with one end near the right

hip, and the other end toward the bow. The kayaker leans forward and

faces slightly to starboard. His left forearm is against, or near, the

foredeck, and his left hand reaches across the starboard gunwale to

grasp the paddle near, but short of, the middle. The right hand holds

the paddle near the end, about even with the hip. The palms of both

hands pass over the paddle, so that the knuckles are outboard. The

kayaker takes a deep breath, leans to starboard and capsizes.

 

(Now turn the page upside down)]

 

[Illustration: Figure 214

 

The same lines which represented the starting position now represent

a fish-eye view of the fully capsized position. The phantom lines

represent the upright position, or goal. To right himself, the kayaker--

 

(1) Flicks his wrists to swing his knuckles toward his face, thus

causing the outboard edge of the paddle to assume a slight planing

angle (not shown) with the water surface. The remaining steps

constitute one continuous movement, to be done as quickly as possible.

 

(2) With his hips and right hand serving as pivot points, he sweeps his

forward paddle blade, and his torso, outward in a 90-degree planing arc

on the water surface, as shown from position (1) to (3), while pulling

down on his left hand and pushing up on his right, thus lifting himself

to the surface.

 

(3) Completes the roll by flicking his wrists to flatten the blade

angle, then sharply increasing his opposing hand pressures, thus

raising himself in a chinning attitude as the paddle blade sinks and is

drawn inward. The roll is now completed.] Since Crantz's time, various

authors have described kayak rolling. At least 30 methods of rolling

have been known in Greenland. There are possibly many more, because the

variations and combinations are numerous.

 

[Illustration: Figure 215

 

THE CRITICAL STAGE OF A CAPSIZE RECOVERY

 

The start (solid lines) and finish (phantom lines) of a planing sweep

are shown head-on. Success is almost certain if the kayaker has

surfaced by the time he has completed the 90-degree sweep. Some minor

refinements of rolling are apparent. The left forearm is shown right

against the foredeck (a convenient means of orientation), the leading

shoulder is nearer the surface (to gain lift when the torso is swung

outward), and the hips right the kayak as far as possible while the

torso is still partly submerged (to avoid having to lift torso and kayak at the same time).]