"Now, the Perak river overflows its banks once a year, and sometimes there are very great floods. Soon after the marriage of Nakhodah Kasim with the white Semang, [38] an unprecedented flood occurred and quantities of foam came down the river. Round the piles of the bathing-house, which, in accordance with Malay custom, stood in the bed of the river close to the bank in front of the house, the floating volumes of foam collected in a mass the size of an elephant. Nakhodah Kasim's wife went to bathe, and finding this island of froth in her way she attempted to move it away with a stick; she removed the upper portion of it and disclosed a female infant sitting in the midst of it enveloped all round with cloud-like foam. The child showed no fear, and the white Semang, carefully lifting her, carried her up to the house, heralding her discovery by loud shouts to her husband. The couple adopted the child willingly, for they had no children, and they treated her thenceforward as their own. They assembled the villagers and gave them a feast, solemnly announcing their adoption of the daughter of the river and their intention of leaving to her everything that they possessed.
"The child was called Tan Puteh, but her father gave her the name of Teh Purba. [39] As she grew up the wealth of her foster-parents increased; the village grew in extent and population, and gradually became an important place." [40]
The usual story of the first creation of man, however, appears to be a Malay modification of Arabic beliefs.
Thus we are told that man was created from the four elements--earth, air, water, and fire--in a way which the following extract, taken from a Selangor charm-book, will explain:--
"God Almighty spake unto Gabriel, saying, 'Be not disobedient, O Gabriel, But go and get me the Heart of the Earth.' But he could not get the Heart of the Earth. 'I will not give it,' said the Earth. Then went the Prophet Israfel to get it, But he could not get the Heart of the Earth. Then went Michael to get it, But he could not get the Heart of the Earth. Then went Azrael to get it, And at last he got the Heart of the Earth. When he got the Heart of the Earth The empyrean and crystalline spheres shook, And the whole Universe (shook). When he got the Heart of the Earth he [41] made from it the Image of Adam. But the Heart of the Earth was then too hard; He mixed Water with it, and it became too soft, (So) he mixed Fire with it, and at last struck out the image of Adam. Then he raised up the image of Adam, And craved Life for it from Almighty God, And God Almighty gave it Life. Then sneezed God Almighty, and the image of Adam brake in pieces, And he (Azrael) returned to remake the image of Adam. Then God Almighty commanded to take steel of Khorassan, And drive it down his back, so that it became the thirty-three bones, The harder steel at the top, the softer below it. The harder steel shot up skywards, And the softer steel penetrated earthwards. Thus the image of Adam had life, and dwelt in Paradise. (There) Adam beheld (two ?) peacocks of no ordinary beauty, And the Angel Gabriel appeared. 'Verily, O Angel Gabriel, I am solitary, Easier is it to live in pairs, I crave a wife.' God Almighty spake, saying, 'Command Adam To pray at dawn a prayer of two genuflexions.' Then Adam prayed, and our Lady Eve descended, And was captured by the Prophet Adam; But before he had finished his prayer she was taken back, Therefore Adam prayed the prayer of two genuflexions as desired, And at the last obtained our Lady Eve. When they were married (Eve) bore twins every time, Until she had borne forty-four children, And the children, too, were wedded, handsome with handsome, and plain with plain."
The magician who dictated the above account stated that when Azrael stretched forth his hand to take the Heart of the Earth, the Earth-spirit caught hold of his middle finger, which yielded to the strain, and thus became longer than the rest, and received its Malay name of the "Devil's Finger" (jari hantu).
A parallel account adds that the Heart of the Earth was white, and gives a fuller description of the interview between Azrael and his formidable antagonist, the Earth. After saluting the latter in the orthodox Muhammadan fashion, Azrael explains his mission, and is met by a point-blank refusal. "I will not give it," said the Earth (referring to its Heart), "forasmuch as I was so created by God Almighty, and if you take away my Heart I shall assuredly die." At this brusque, though perhaps natural retort, the archangel loses his temper, and rudely exclaims that he "will take the Earth's Heart whether it will or no." Here Azrael "gave the Earth a push with his right hand and his left, and grasping at the Heart of the Earth, got hold of it and carried it back to the presence of God." God now summons Gabriel and orders him to mould (lit. forge) the image of Adam. Then Gabriel took the lump of earth which was the Earth's Heart and mixed it first with water to soften it, then, as it was too soft, with fire to harden it, and when the image was made, obtained life from God to put into it. [42] [The breaking of the first image which was made, and the making of the second, are here omitted]. Finally, the creation of "our Lady" Eve and the birth of her first-born are described, the latter occasion being accompanied by a thick darkness, which compelled Adam to take off his turban and beat the child therewith in order to dispel the evil influences (badi) which had attended its birth. [43]
The following extract (from a Malay treatise quoted by Newbold) fairly describes the general state of Malay ideas respecting the constitution of the human body:--
"Plato, Socrates, Galen, Aristotle, and other philosophers affirm that God created man of a fixed number of bones, blood-vessels, etc. For instance, the skull is composed of 5 1/2 bones, the place of smell and sense of 7 bones, between this and the neck are 32 bones. The neck is composed of 7 bones, and the back of 24 bones; 208 bones are contained in the other members of the body. In all there are 360 bones and 360 blood-vessels in a man's body. The brains weigh 306 miscals, the blood 573. The total of all the bones, blood-vessels, large and small, and gristles, amounts to 1093; and the hairs of the head to six lacs and 4000. The frame of man is divided into 40 great parts, which are again subdivided. Four elements enter into his composition, viz. air, fire, earth, and water. With these elements are connected four essences--the soul or spirit with air, love with fire, concupiscence with earth, and wisdom with water." [44]
(b) Sanctity of the Body
In dealing with this branch of the subject I will first take the case of the kings and priestly magicians who present the most clearly-marked examples of personal sanctity which are now to be found among Malays, and will then describe the chief features of the sanctity ascribed to all ranks alike in respect of certain special parts of the ordinary human anatomy. The theory of the king as the Divine Man is held perhaps as strongly in the Malay region as in any other part of the world, a fact which is strikingly emphasised by the alleged right of Malay monarchs "to slay at pleasure, without being guilty of a crime." Not only is the king's person considered sacred, but the sanctity of his body is believed to communicate itself to his regalia, and to slay those who break the royal taboos. Thus it is firmly believed that any one who seriously offends the royal person, who touches (even for a moment) or who imitates (even with the king's permission) the chief objects of the regalia, [45] or who wrongfully makes use of any of the insignia or privileges of royalty, will be kena daulat, i.e. struck dead, by a quasi-electric discharge of that Divine Power which the Malays suppose to reside in the king's person, [46] and which is called "Daulat" or "Royal Sanctity." Before I proceed, however, to discuss this power, it will be best to give some description of the regalia in which it resides:--
Of Malacca Newbold says: "The articles of Malay regalia usually consist of a silasila, or book of genealogical descent, a code of laws, a vest or baju, and a few weapons, generally a kris, kleywang, or spear." [47]
"The limbing is a sort of lance; the tombak bandrang a spear of state, four or seven of which are usually carried before the chiefs in the interior of the Peninsula. The handle is covered with a substance flowing from it like a horse-tail, dyed crimson, sometimes crimson and white; this is generally of hair." [48]
So in Leyden's translation of the Malay Annals (1821) we read--
"My name is Bichitram Shah, who am raja.... This is the sword, Chora sa mendang kian (i.e. mandakini), and that is the lance, Limbuar (i.e. limbuara); this is the signet, Cayu Gampit, which is employed in correspondence with rajas." [49]
"The Chora sa medang kian (i.e. mandakini) is the celebrated sword with which Peramas Cumunbang killed the enormous serpent Sicatimuna, which ravaged the country of Menangkabowe about the beginning of the twelfth century." [50]
Of the Perak regalia we read: "Tan Saban was commanded by his mistress to open negotiations with Johor, and this having been done, a prince of the royal house of that kingdom, who traced his descent from the old line of Menangkabau, sailed for Perak to assume the sovereignty. He brought with him the insignia of royalty, namely, the royal drums (gandang nobat), the pipes (nafiri), the flutes (sarunei and bangsi), the betel-box (puan naga taru), the sword (chora mandakini), the sword (perbujang), the sceptre (kayu gamit), the jewel (kamala), the surat chiri, the seal of state (chap halilintar), and the umbrella (ubar-ubar). All these were enclosed in a box called Baninan." [51]
In Selangor the regalia consisted of the royal instruments of music--(the big State Drum or naubat, beaten at the king's coronation; the two small State Drums (gendang); the two State Kettle-drums (langkara); the lempiri or State Trumpet, and the serunei or State Flute--to which perhaps a bangsi should be added, as in the Perak list)--which were seldom, if ever, moved, and the following articles which were carried in procession on state occasions: [52]--
1. The royal Betel-box. 2. The Long K'ris--a kind of rapier used for Malay executions. 3. The two royal Swords; one on the right hand and one on the left (all of the articles mentioned hitherto being carried in front of the Sultan). 4. The royal "Fringed" Umbrella (payong ubor-ubor), carried behind the right-hand sword-bearer. 5. The royal "Cuspadore," carried behind the left-hand sword-bearer. 6. The royal Tobacco-box, carried at the Sultan's back. 7. The eight royal tufted Lances (tombak bendrang or bandangan), whose bearers were followed by two personal attendants, the latter of whom attended, besides, to anything that was broken or damaged; so that the procession numbered seventeen persons in all. [53]
Of the Pahang regalia I have not been able to obtain a list with any pretensions to completeness, but from a remark by Mr. Clifford (the present Resident) in one of his books, they would appear to be essentially the same as those of the other Federated States. [54]
A list of the Jelebu regalia (given me by Ungku Said Kechil of Jelebu) ran as follows:--
1. A single-bladed Sword (pedang pemanchor). 2. The Long K'ris (k'ris panjang, penyalang), used for executions. 3. The royal Lances (tombak bendrang). 4. The royal Umbrella (payong kabesaran). 5. The royal Standard and Pennants (tunggul ular-ular). 6. The royal Ceiling-cloth and Hangings (tabir, langit-langit dewangga). 7. The "Moving Mountains" (gunong dua berangkat), perhaps the names of two peaked pillows. 8. The royal Drums (gendang naubat); said to be "headed" with the skins of lice (kulit tuma) and to emit a single chord of twelve tones when struck (dua-b'las bunyi sakali di-pukol). 9. The royal Trumpet (lempiri or | nempiri). | Each of these was also said to 10. The royal Gong. | emit a single chord of twelve 11. The royal Guitar (kechapi). | notes. 12. The royal rebab or Malay fiddle.
This latter peculiarity (of the multiplication of notes) is quite in accordance with the traditions of the king's musical instruments in Malay romances. Thus of Raja Donan's magic flute we are told, "The first time (that he sounded it), the flute gave forth the sounds of twelve instruments, the second time it played as if twenty-four instruments were being sounded, and the third time it played like thirty-six different instruments." No wonder we are told that "the Princesses Che Ambong and Che Muda dissolved in tears, and the music had to be stopped." [55]
My informant declared that these objects came into existence of themselves (terjali sendiri), at a spot between the two peaks of a burning mountain (gunong merapi) in the country of Menangkabau in Sumatra. He also averred that "rain could not rot them nor sun blister them," and that any one who "brushed past them" (di-lintas) would fall to the ground; [56] whilst no fewer than seven buffaloes have to be slaughtered before the "moving mountains" (when worn out) can be replaced. [57]
An enumeration of the writer's regalia often forms an important part of a letter from one Malay sovereign to another, more especially when the writer wishes to emphasise his importance. [58]
But the extraordinary strength of the Malay belief in the supernatural powers of the regalia of their sovereigns can only be thoroughly realised after a study of their romances, in which their kings are credited with all the attributes of inferior gods, whose birth, as indeed every subsequent act of their after life, is attended by the most amazing prodigies.
They are usually invulnerable, and are gifted with miraculous powers, such as that of transforming themselves, and of returning to (or recalling others to) life; in fact they have, in every way, less of the man about them and more of the god. Thus it is that the following description of the dress of an old-time Raja falls easily into line with what would otherwise appear the objectless jargon which still constitutes the preamble of many a Malay prince's letters, but which can yet be hardly regarded as mere rhetoric, since it has a deep meaning for those who read it:--
"He wore the trousers called beraduwanggi, miraculously made without letting in pieces; hundreds of mirrors encircled his waist, thousands encircled his legs, they were sprinkled all about his body, and larger ones followed the seams."
Then his waistband (kain ikat pinggang) was of "flowered cloth, twenty-five cubits in length, or thirty if the fringe be included; thrice a day did it change its colours--in the morning transparent as dew, at mid-day of the colour of lembayong, [59] and in the evening of the hue of oil."
Next came his coat. It was "of reddish purple velvet, thrice brilliant the lustre of its surface, seven times powerful the strength of the dye; the dyer after making it sailed the world for three years, but the dye still clung to the palms of his hands."
His dagger was "a straight blade of one piece which spontaneously screwed itself into the haft. The grooves, called retak mayat, [60] started from the base of the blade, the damask called pamur janji appeared half-way up, and the damask called lam jilallah at the point; the damask alif was there parallel with the edge, and where the damasking ended the steel was white. No ordinary metal was the steel, it was what was over after making the bolt of God's Ka'abah (at Meccah). It had been forged by the son of God's prophet, Adam, smelted in the palm of his hand, fashioned with the end of his finger, and coloured with the juice of flowers in a Chinese furnace. Its deadly qualities came down to it from the sky, and if cleaned (with acid) at the source of a river, the fish at the embouchure came floating up dead.
"The sword that he wore was called lang pengonggong, [61] 'the successful swooper,' lit. the 'kite carrying off its prey.'
"The next article described is his turban, which, among the Malays, is a square handkerchief folded and knotted round the head."
"He next took his royal handkerchief, knotting it so that it stood up with the ends projecting; one of them he called dendam ta' sudah (endless love): it was purposely unfinished; if it were finished the end of the world would come. It had been woven in no ordinary way, but had been the work of his mother from her youth. Wearing it he was provided with all the love-compelling secrets. (The names of a number of charms to excite passion are given, but they cannot be explained in the compass of a note)." [62]
He wore the Malay national garment--the sarong. It was "a robe of muslin of the finest kind; no ordinary weaving had produced it; it had been woven in a jar in the middle of the ocean by people with gills, relieved by others with beaks; no sooner was it finished than the maker was put to death, so that no one might be able to make one like it. It was not of the fashion of the clothing of the rajas of the present day, but of those of olden time. If it were put in the sun it got damper, if it were soaked in water it became drier. A slight tear mended by darning only increased its value, instead of lessening it, for the thread for the purpose cost one hundred dollars. A single dewdrop dropping on it would tangle the thread for a cubit's length, while the breath of the south wind would disentangle it."
Finally, we get a description of the way in which the Raja (S'ri Rama) set out upon his journey.
"He adopted the art called sedang budiman, the young snake writhed at his feet (i.e. he started at mid-day when his own shadow was round his feet), a young eagle was flying against the wind overhead; he took a step forward and then two backward, one forward as a sign that he was leaving his country, and two backward as a sign that he would return; as he took a step with the right foot, loud clanked his accoutrements [63] on his left; as he put forth the left foot a similar clank was heard on his right; he advanced, swelling out his broad chest, and letting drop his slender fingers, adopting the gait called 'planting beans,' and then the step called 'sowing spinach.'" [64]
In addition to the sanctity of the regalia, the king, as the divine man, possesses an infinite multitude of prerogatives which enter into almost every act of his private life, and thus completely separate him from the generality of his fellow-men.
These prerogatives are too numerous to be mentioned in detail, but the following extract from Leyden's translation of the "Malay Annals" will give a general idea of their character and extent:--
"Sultan Muhammed Shah again established in order the throne of his sovereignty. He was the first who prohibited the wearing of yellow clothes in public, not even a handkerchief of that colour, nor curtains, nor hangings, nor large pillow-cases, nor coverlets, nor any envelope of any bundle, nor the cloth lining of a house, excepting only the waist cloth, the coat, and the turban. He also prohibited the constructing of houses with abutments, or smaller houses connected with them; also suspended pillars or timbers (tiang gantong); nor timbers the tops of which project above the roofs, and also summer houses. [65] He also prohibited the ornamenting of creeses with gold, and the wearing anklets of gold, and the wearing the koronchong, or hollow bracelets (anklets?) of gold, ornamented with silver. None of these prohibited articles did he permit to be worn by a person, however rich he might be, unless by his particular licence, a privilege which the raja has ever since possessed. He also forbade any one to enter the palace unless wearing a cloth petticoat [66] of decent length, with his creese in front; [67] and a shoulder-cloth; and no person was permitted to enter unless in this array, and if any one wore his creese behind him, it was incumbent on the porter of the gate to seize it. Such is the order of former time respecting prohibition by the Malayu rajas, and whatever is contrary to this is a transgression against the raja, and ought to incur a fine of five cati. The white umbrella, which is superior to the yellow one, because it is seen conspicuous at a greater distance, was also confined to the raja's person, [68] while the yellow umbrella was confined to his family." [69]
A number of other particulars bearing on this subject will be found in other parts of the text, and in the Appendix references are given to other works for additional details, which are too numerous to be recorded here.
"At funerals, whether the deceased has been a great or insignificant person, if he be a subject, the use of the Payong (umbrella) and the Puwadi is interdicted, as also the distribution of alms, unless by royal permission; otherwise the articles thus forbidden will be confiscated." "Puwadi is the ceremony of spreading a cloth, generally a white one, for funeral and other processions to walk upon. Should the deceased be of high rank, the cloth extends from the house where the corpse is deposited, to the burial-ground." [70]
Similar prohibitions are still in force at the courts of the Malay Sultans in the Peninsula, though a yellow umbrella is now generally substituted for the white, at least in Selangor.
A distinction is also now drawn between manufactured yellow cloth and cloth which has been dyed yellow with saffron, the wrongful use of the latter (the genuine article) being regarded as the more especially heinous act.
In addition to the royal monopoly of such objects as have been mentioned, Sir W. E. Maxwell mentions three royal perquisites (larangan raja), i.e. river turtles (tuntong) (by which he no doubt means their eggs); elephants (by which he doubtless means elephants' tusks); [71] and the fruit of the "ketiar" from which oil is made by the Perak Malays. He adds, "It used to be a capital offence to give false information to the Raja about any of these. The 'ketiar' tree is said to affect certain localities, and is found in groves not mixed with other trees. In former days, when the fruit was ripe, the whole of the Raja's household would turn out to gather it. It is said to yield a very large percentage of oil." [72]
The only tree in Ridley's list [73] whose name at all resembles the "ketiar" is the katiak, which is identified as Acronychia Porteri, Wall (Rutaceæ).
A description of the gathering of the eggs of river turtles by the royal party in Perak will be found in Malay Sketches. [74]
Besides the above there are not a few linguistic taboos connected with the king's person, such as the use of the words santap, to eat; beradu, to sleep; bersemaiam, to be seated, or to "reside" in a certain place; berangkat, to "progress"; siram, to bathe; g'ring, to be sick; and mangkat, to die; all of which words are specially substituted for the ordinary Malay words when reference is made to the king. [75] Moreover, when the king dies his name is dropped, and he receives the title of "Marhum," the late or "deceased," with the addition of an expression alluding to some prominent fact in his life, or occasionally to the place of his decease. These titles, strange as it may seem, are often the reverse of complimentary, and occasionally ridiculous. [76]
It must not be forgotten, too, in discussing the divine attributes of the Malay king, that he is firmly believed to possess a personal influence over the works of nature, such as the growth of the crops and the bearing of fruit-trees. This same property is supposed to reside in a lesser degree in his delegates, and even in the persons of Europeans in charge of districts. Thus I have frequently known (in Selangor) the success or failure of the rice crops attributed to a change of district officers, and in one case I even heard an outbreak of ferocity which occurred among man-eating crocodiles laid at the door of a most zealous and able, though perhaps occasionally somewhat unsympathetic, representative of the Government. So, too, on one occasion when three deaths occurred during a District Officer's temporary absence, the mere fact of his absence was considered significant. I may add that royal blood is supposed by many Malays to be white, and this is the pivot on which the plot of not a few Malay folk-tales is made to turn. [77]
Finally, it must be pointed out that the greatest possible importance is attached to the method of saluting the king.
In the "Sri Rama" (the Malay Ramayana) we read, even of the chiefs, that--
"While yet some way off they bowed to the dust, When they got near they made obeisance, Uplifting at each step their fingers ten, The hands closed together like the rootlets of the bakong palm [78] The fingers one on the other like a pile of sirih[2] leaves." [79]
Equals in rank when saluting one another touch [80] (though they do not shake) each other's hands, but a person of humble birth must not touch hands in saluting a great chief. "A man, named Imam Bakar, was once slain at Pasir Tambang, at the mouth of the Tembeling river. He incautiously touched hands in greeting with a Chief called To' Gajah, and the latter, seizing him in an iron grip, held him fast, while he was stabbed to death with spears." [81]
In saluting a great Chief, like the Dato' Maharaja Perba Jelai, the hands are "lifted up in salutation with the palms pressed together, as in the attitude of Christian prayer, but the tips of the thumbs are not suffered to ascend beyond the base of the chin. In saluting a real Raja, the hands are carried higher and higher, according to the prince's rank, until, for the Sultan, the tips of the thumbs are on a level with the forehead. Little details such as these are of immense importance in the eyes of the Malays, and not without reason, seeing that in an Independent Native State many a man has come by his death for carelessness in their observance." [82]
In the king's audience hall the formal salutations are performed in a sitting posture, and in this case, too, the greatest attention is paid to the height to which the hands are raised. The chief twice makes salutation in a sitting posture as he advances, and at the third advance bends over the Sultan's hands, two more salutations being made on his way back to his place.
A flagrant infringement of any of the prerogatives of the Sultan, such as those I have described, is certain, it is thought, to prove fatal, more or less immediately.
Thus the death of Penghulu Mohit, a well-known Malay headman of the Klang district, in Selangor, which took place while I was in charge of that district, was at the time very generally attributed by the local Malays to his usurpation of certain royal privileges or prerogatives on the occasion of his daughter's wedding. One of these was his acceptance of gift-buffaloes, decorated after the royal fashion, which were presented to him as wedding gifts in his daughter's honour. These buffaloes had a covering of cloth put over them, their horns covered, and a crescent-shaped breast-ornament (dokoh) hung about their necks. Thus dressed they were taken to Mohit's house in solemn procession. [83] It was, at the time, considered significant that the very first of these gift-buffaloes, which had been brought overland from Jugra, where the Sultan lived, had died on arrival, and whatever the cause may have been, it is a fact that Mohit's mother died a day or two after the conclusion of the wedding ceremonies, and that Mohit himself was taken ill almost immediately and died only about a fortnight later.
The only person who, in former days, was not in the least affected by the royal taboos which protected the regalia from the common touch was the (now I believe extinct) official who held the post of Court Physician (Maharaja Lela). He, and he alone, might go freely in the royal apartments wherever he chose, and the immunity and freedom which he enjoyed in this respect passed into a proverb, the expression "to act the Court Physician" (buat Maharaja Lela) being used to describe an altogether unwarrantable familiarity or impertinence.
The following story (though I tell it against myself) is perhaps the best illustration I can give of the great danger supposed to be incurred by those who meddle with the paraphernalia of royalty. Among the late Sultan's insignia of royalty (in 1897) were a couple of drums (gendang) and the long silver trumpet which I have already described. Such trumpets are found among the kabesaran or regalia of most Malay States, and are always, I believe, called lempiri or nempiri (Pers. nafiri). They are considered so sacred that they can only be handled or sounded, it is believed, by a tribe of Malays called "Orang Kalau," or the "Kalau men," [84] as any one else who attempted to sound them would be struck dead. Even the "Orang Kalau," moreover, can only sound this instrument at the proper time and season (e.g. at the proclamation of a new sovereign), for if they were to sound it at any other time its noise would slay all who heard it, since it is the chosen habitation of the "Jin Karaja'an" or State Demon, [85] whose delight it would be, if wrongfully disturbed, to slay and spare not. [86]
This trumpet and the drums of the Selangor regalia were kept by the present Sultan (then Raja Muda, or Crown Prince of Selangor) in a small galvanised iron cupboard which stood (upon posts about three feet high) in the middle of a lawn outside His Highness' "garden residence" at Bandar. His Highness himself informed me that they had once been kept in the house itself, but when there they were the source of infinite annoyance and anxiety to the inmates on account of their very uncanny behaviour!
Drops of perspiration, for instance, would form upon the Trumpet when a leading member of the Royal House was about to die (this actually happened, as I was told, at Langat just before the death of Tungku 'Chik, the late Sultan's eldest daughter, who died during my residence in the neighbourhood). Then one Raja Bakar, son of a Raja `Ali, during the rethatching of the house at Bandar, accidentally trod upon the wooden barrel of one of the State Drums--and died in consequence of his inadvertence. When, therefore, a hornet's nest formed inside one of these same drums it was pretty clear that things were going from bad to worse, and a Chinaman was ordered to remove it, no Malay having been found willing to risk his life in undertaking so dangerous an office--an unwillingness which was presently justified, as the Chinaman, too, after a few days' interval, swelled up and died. Both these strange coincidences were readily confirmed by the present Sultan on an occasion when I happened to question the authenticity of the story, and as His Highness is one of the most enlightened and truthful of men, such confirmation cannot easily be set aside. But the strangest coincidence of all was to follow, for not long afterwards, having never seen that portion of the regalia which was in the Raja Muda's charge, I happened to mention to a Malay friend of mine at Jugra my wish to be allowed to examine these objects, and was at once begged not to touch them, on the ground that "no one could say what might follow." But shortly after, having occasion to visit the Raja Muda at his house at Bandar, I took the opportunity of asking whether there was any objection to my seeing these much debated objects, and as His Highness not only very obligingly assented, but offered to show them to me himself, I was able both to see and to handle them, His Highness himself taking the Trumpet out of its yellow case and handing it to me. I thought nothing more of the matter at the time, but, by what was really a very curious coincidence, within a few days' time of the occurrence, was seized with a sharp attack of malarial influenza, the result of which was that I was obliged to leave the district, and go into hospital at headquarters. In a Malay village news spreads quickly, and the report of my indisposition, after what was no doubt regarded as an act of extraordinary rashness, appears to have made a profound impression, and the result of it was that a Malay who probably considered himself indebted to me for some assistance he had received, bound himself by a vow to offer sacrifice at the shrine of a famous local saint should I be permitted to return to the district. Of this, however, I knew nothing at the time, and nothing could have exceeded my astonishment when I found upon my return that it was my duty to attend the banquet which took place at the saint's tomb in honour of my own recovery! [87]
Having shown the wide gulf which divides the "divine man" from his fellows, I have still to point out the extent to which certain portions of the human frame have come to be invested with sanctity, and to require to be treated with special ceremonies. These parts of the anatomy are, in particular, the head, the hair, the teeth, the ears, and the nails, all of which I will take in their order.
The head, in the first place, is undoubtedly still considered by the Malays to possess some modified degree of sanctity. A proof of this is the custom (`adat) which regulates the extent of the sacrifice to be offered in a case of assault or battery by the party committing the injury. If any part of the head is injured, nothing less than a goat will suffice (the animal being killed and both parties bathed in the blood); if the upper part of the body, the slaughter of a cock (to be disposed of in a similar way) will be held to be sufficient reparation, and so on, the sacrifice becoming of less value in proportion as the injured part is farther from the head. So, too, Mr. Frazer writes: "The ... superstition (of the sanctity of the head) exists among the Malays; for an early traveller reports that in Java people 'wear nothing on their heads, and say that nothing must be on their heads, ... and if any person were to put his hand upon their head they would kill him; and they do not build houses with stories in order that they may not walk over each other's heads.' It is also found in full force throughout Polynesia." [88]
From the principle of the sanctity of the head flows, no doubt, the necessity of using the greatest circumspection during the process of cutting the hair. [89] Sometimes throughout the whole life of the wearer, and frequently during special periods, the hair is left uncut. Thus I was told that in former days Malay men usually wore their hair long, and I myself have seen an instance of this at Jugra in Selangor in the person of a Malay [90] of the old school, who was locally famous on this account. So, too, during the forty days which must elapse before the purification of a woman after the birth of her child, the father of the child is forbidden to cut his hair, and a similar abstention is said to have been formerly incumbent upon all persons either prosecuting a journey or engaging in war. Often a boy's head is entirely shaven shortly after birth with the exception of a single lock in the centre of the head, and so maintained until the boy begins to grow up, but frequently the operation is postponed (generally, it is said, in consequence of a vow made by the child's parents) until the period of puberty or marriage. Great care, too, must be exercised in disposing of the clippings of hair (more especially the first clippings), as the Malay profoundly believes that "the sympathetic connection which exists between himself and every part of his body continues to exist even after the physical connection has been severed, and that therefore he will suffer from any harm that may befall the severed parts of his body, such as the clippings of his hair or the parings of his nails. Accordingly he takes care that those severed portions of himself shall not be left in places where they might either be exposed to accidental injury, or fall into the hands of malicious persons who might work magic on them to his detriment or death." [91]
Thus we invariably find clippings of the victim's hair mentioned (together with parings of his nails, etc.) as forming part of the ingredients of the well-known wax image or mannikin into which pins are stuck, and which is still believed by all Malays to be a most effective method of causing the illness or death of an enemy. [92] I was once present at the curious ceremony of cutting the hair of a Malay bride, which had all the characteristics of a religious rite, but the detailed account of it will be reserved for a later chapter. [93]
The same difficulties and dangers which beset the first cutting of the hair apply, though perhaps in a less degree, to the first paring of the nails (bertobak), the boring of the ears of girls (bertindek telinga), and the filing of the teeth (berasah gigi) of either sex whether at puberty or marriage. One or more of the nails are frequently worn long by Malays of standing, and the women who engage in "nautch" dancing and theatrical performances invariably wear a complete set of artificial nails (changgei). These latter are usually of brass, are often several inches in length, and are made so as to fit on to the tips of the fingers. Occasionally a brass ring with a small peacock, or some such bird, of the same material will be attached to the end of the nail by a minute brass chain. The practice of wearing long nails is sometimes attributed to Chinese influence, but it is hard to see why this particular detail of Malay custom, which is quite in keeping with the general trend of Malay ideas about the person, should be supposed to be derived from China. The borrowing, if any, is much more likely to have been on the part of the Chinese, who undoubtedly imported many Indian ideas along with Buddhism. The custom appears to be followed, moreover, in many places, such as the interior of Sumatra, where Chinese influence is non-existent. In Siam, again, it appears to obtain very strongly; [94] but no reason has yet been shown for supposing that this is anything but an instance of the similarity of results independently arrived at by nations starting with similar premisses.
The ear-boring and tooth-filing ceremonies which still not infrequently take place at the age of puberty in both sexes are of no less religious import than the rite of cutting the first lock. The main details of these ceremonies will be described in a later part of this book. [95]
To the same category (of sacred things having physical connection with the body) should doubtless be referred such objects as the eyebrows, the saliva, and soil taken from the (naked) footstep, all of which are utilised by the magician to achieve his nefarious ends.
(c) The Soul
The Malay conception of the Human Soul (Semangat) [96] is that of a species of "Thumbling," "a thin, unsubstantial human image," or mannikin, which is temporarily absent from the body in sleep, trance, disease, and permanently absent after death.
This mannikin, which is usually invisible but is supposed to be about as big as the thumb, corresponds exactly in shape, proportion, and even in complexion, to its embodiment or casing (sarong), i.e. the body in which it has its residence. It is of a "vapoury, shadowy, or filmy" essence, though not so impalpable but that it may cause displacement on entering a physical object, and as it can "fly" or "flash" quickly from place to place, it is often, perhaps metaphorically, addressed as if it were a bird. [97]
Thus in a charm given in the Appendix we find--
"Hither, Soul, come hither! Hither, Little One, come hither! Hither, Bird, come hither! Hither, Filmy One, come hither!" [98]
As this mannikin is the exact reproduction in every way of its bodily counterpart, and is "the cause of life and thought in the individual it animates," it may readily be endowed with quasi-human feelings, and "independently possess the personal consciousness and volition of its corporeal owner." Thus we find the following appeal addressed to the soul in the charm just quoted:--
"Do not bear grudges, Do not bear malice, Do not take it as a wrong, Do not take it as a transgression."
These quasi-human attributes of the soul being so complete, it is an easy stretch of the imagination to provide it with a house, which is generally in practice identified with the body of its owner, but may also be identified with any one of its temporary domiciles. Thus in the charm already quoted we read--
"Return to your own House and House-ladder, To your own House-floor, of which the planks have started, And your Roof-thatch 'starred' with holes."
The state of disrepair into which the soul's house (i.e. the sick man's body) is described as having fallen, is here attributed to the soul's absence. [99] The completeness of this figurative identification of the soul's "house" with its owner's body, and of the soul's "sheath" or casing with both, is very clearly brought out in the following lines:--
"Cluck! cluck! Soul of this sick man, So-and-so! Return into the Frame and Body of So-and-so, To your own House and House-ladder, to your own Clearing and Yard, To your own Parents, to your own Casing."
And this is no mere chance expression, for in another charm the soul is adjured in these words:--
"As you remember your own parents, remember me, As you remember your own House and House-ladder, remember me." [100]
The soul "appears to men (both waking and asleep) as a phantom separate from the body of which it bears the likeness," "manifests physical power," and walks, sits, and sleeps:--
"Cluck! cluck! Soul of So-and-so, come and walk with me, Come and sit with me, Come and sleep with me, and share my pillow." [101] |
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