9. To the above list may be perhaps added the satawar, sitawar
or tawar-tawar (Costus speciosus, L., Scitamineæ, and Forrestia,
spp. Commelinaceæ); and
10. The satebal (Fagræa racemosa, Jack., Loganiaceæ).
Leaves of the foregoing plants and shrubs are made up, as has been
said, in small sets or combinations of five, seven, or even perhaps of
nine leaves a piece. These combinations are said to differ according to
the object to which the rice-water is to be applied. It is extremely
unlikely, however, that all magicians should make the same selections
even for the same objects--rather would they be likely to make use of
such leaves on the list as happen to be most readily available. Still,
however, as the only example of such differentiation which I have yet
been able to obtain, I will give the details of three separate and
distinctive combinations, which were described to me by a Selangor
magician:--
(1) For a wedding ceremony sambau dara tied round with a
selaguri string of shredded
pulut-pulut tree-bark.
sapanggil
sapenoh
(2) For blessing gandarusa tied with the
fishing-stakes selaguri creeper ribu-ribu.
sapanggil
lenjuang merah
sapenoh
(3) For the ceremony of lenjuang tied with
taking the rice-soul merah ribu-ribu.
selaguri
pulut-pulut
sapanggil
sapenoh
Further inquiry and the collection of additional material will no
doubt help to elucidate the general principles on which such selections
are made.
Short rhyming charms are very often used as accompaniments of the rite
of rice-water, but appear to be seldom if ever repeated aloud. The
following is a specimen, and others will be found in the Appendix:
[147]--
"Neutralising Rice-paste, true Rice-paste,
And, thirdly, Rice-paste of Kadangsa!
Keep me from sickness, keep me from death,
Keep me from injury and ruin."
Other not less important developments of the idea of lustration by
water are to be found in such ceremonies as the bathing of mother and
child after a birth and the washing of the floor (basoh lantei) upon
similar occasions, the bathing of the sick, of bride and bridegroom
at weddings, of corpses (meruang), [148] and the annual bathing
expeditions (mandi Safar), which are supposed to purify the persons
of the bathers and to protect them from evil (tolak bala).
Fasting, or the performance of religious penance, which is now
but seldom practised, would appear to have been only undertaken in
former days with a definite object in view, such as the production
of the state of mental exaltation which induces ecstatic visions,
the acquisition of supernatural powers (sakti), and so forth.
The fast always took place, of course, in a solitary spot, and not
unfrequently upon the top of some high and solitary hill such as Mount
Ophir (Gunong Ledang), on the borders of Malacca territory. Frequently,
however, much lower hills, or even plains which possessed some
remarkable rock or tree, would be selected for the purpose.
Such fasting, however, did not, as sometimes with us, convey to the
Malays the idea of complete abstinence, as the magicians informed me
that a small modicum of rice contained in a ketupat (which is a small
diamond-shaped rice-receptacle made of plaited cocoa-nut leaf) was the
daily "allowance" of any one who was fasting. The result was that fasts
might be almost indefinitely prolonged, and the thrice-seven-days'
fast of 'Che Utus upon Jugra Hill, on the Selangor coast, [149] is
still one of the traditions of that neighbourhood, whilst in Malay
romances and in Malay tradition this form of religious penance is
frequently represented as continuing for years.
Finally, I would draw attention to the strong vein of Sympathetic
Magic or "make believe" which runs through and leavens the whole
system of Malay superstition. The root-idea of this form of magic
has been said to be the principle that "cause follows from effect."
"One of the principles of sympathetic magic is that any effect may
be produced by imitating it.... If it is wished to kill a person,
an image of him is made and then destroyed; and it is believed that
through a certain physical sympathy between the person and his image,
the man feels the injuries done to the image as if they were done to
his own body, and that when it is destroyed he must simultaneously
perish." [150]
The principle thus described is perhaps the most important of all
those which underlie the "Black Art" of the Malays.
CHAPTER IV
The Malay Pantheon
(a) Gods
A careful investigation of the magic rites and charms used by a
nation which has changed its religion will not unfrequently show,
that what is generally called witchcraft is merely the debris of the
older ritual, condemned by the priests of the newer faith, but yet
stubbornly, though secretly, persisting, through the unconquerable
religious conservatism of the mass of the people.
"There is nothing that clings longer to a race than the religious
faith in which it has been nurtured. Indeed, it is impossible for
any mind that is not thoroughly scientific to cast off entirely the
religious forms of thought in which it has grown to maturity. Hence
in every people that has received the impression of foreign beliefs,
we find that the latter do not expel and supersede the older religion,
but are engrafted on it, blent with it, or overlie it. Observances are
more easily abandoned than ideas, and even when all the external forms
of the alien faith have been put on, and few vestiges of the indigenous
one remain, the latter still retains its vitality in the mind, and
powerfully colours or corrupts the former. The actual religion of a
people is thus of great ethnographic interest, and demands a minute
and searching observation. No other facts relating to rude tribes are
more difficult of ascertainment, or more often elude inquiry." [151]
"The general principle stated by Logan in the passage just quoted
receives remarkable illustration from a close investigation of the
folk-lore and superstitious beliefs of the Malays. Two successive
religious changes have taken place among them, and when we have
succeeded in identifying the vestiges of Brahmanism which underlie
the external forms of the faith of Muhammad, long established in all
Malay kingdoms, we are only half-way through our task."
"There yet remain the powerful influences of the still earlier
indigenous faith to be noted and accounted for. Just as the
Buddhists of Ceylon turn in times of sickness and danger, not to the
consolations offered by the creed of Buddha, but to the propitiation
of the demons feared and reverenced by their early progenitors,
and just as the Burmese and Talaings, though Buddhists, retain in
full force the whole of the Nat superstition, so among the Malays,
in spite of centuries which have passed since the establishment of
an alien worship, the Muhammadan peasant may be found invoking the
protection of Hindu gods against the spirits of evil with which his
primitive faith has peopled all natural objects." [152]
"What was the faith of Malaya seven hundred years ago it is hard to
say, but there is a certain amount of evidence to lead to the belief
that it was a form of Brahmanism, and that, no doubt, had succeeded
the original spirit worship." [153]
The evidence of folk-lore, taken in conjunction with that supplied by
charm-books and romances, goes to show that the greater gods of the
Malay Pantheon, though modified in some respects by Malay ideas, were
really borrowed Hindu divinities, and that only the lesser gods and
spirits are native to the Malay religious system. It is true that some
of these native gods can be with more or less distinctness identified
with the great powers of nature: the King of the Winds (Raja Angin)
for instance; "Mambang Tali Harus," or the god of mid-currents (the
Malay Neptune); the gods of thunder and lightning, of the celestial
bodies, etc.; but none of them appear to have the status of the chief
gods of the Hindu system, and both by land and water the terrible Shiva
("Batara Guru" or "Kala") is supreme. Yet each department of nature,
however small, has its own particular godling or spirit who requires
propitiation, and influences for good or evil every human action. Only
the moral element is wanting to the divine hegemony--the "cockeyed,"
limping substitute which does duty for it reflecting only too
truthfully the character of the people with whom it passes as divine.
I will first take, in detail, the gods of Hindu origin. "Batara (or
Betara) Guru" is "the name by which Siva is known to his worshippers,
who constitute the vast majority of the Balinese, and who probably
constituted the bulk of the old Javanese." [154]
In the magic of the Peninsular Malays we find Vishnu the Preserver,
Brahma the Creator, Batara Guru, Kala, and S'ri simultaneously appealed
to by the Malay magician; and though it would, perhaps, be rash,
(as Mr. Wilkinson says), to infer solely from Malay romances or Malay
theatrical invocations (many of which owe much to Javanese influence),
that Hinduism was the more ancient religion of the Malays, there is
plenty of other evidence to prove that the "Batara Guru" of the Malays
(no less than the Batara Guru of Bali and Java) is none other than
the recognised father of the Hindu Trinity. [155]
Of the greater deities or gods, Batara Guru is unquestionably the
greatest. "In the Hikayat Sang Samba (the Malay version of the
Bhaumakavya), Batara Guru appears as a supreme God, with Brahma and
Vishnu as subordinate deities. It is Batara Guru who alone has the
water of life (ayer utama (atama) jiwa) which brings the slaughtered
heroes to life." [156]
So to this day the Malay magician declares that 'Toh Batara Guru
(under any one of the many corruptions which his name now bears [157])
was "the all-powerful spirit who held the place of Allah before the
advent of Muhammadanism, a spirit so powerful that he could restore
the dead to life; and to him all prayers were addressed."
Mr. Wilkinson, in the article from which we have already quoted,
deals with another point of interest, the expression sang-yang,
or batara, which is prefixed to guru. After pointing out that yang
in this case is not the ordinary Malay pronoun (yang, who), but an
old word meaning a "deity," he remarks, that so far as he has been
able to discover, it is only used of the greater Hindu divinities,
and not of inferior deities or demi-gods. Thus we find it applied to
Shiva and Vishnu, but never to the monkey-god Hanuman, or a deity of
secondary importance like Dermadewa. Such inferior divinities have
only the lesser honorific "sang" prefixed to their names, and in this
respect fare no better than mere mortals (such as Sang Sapurba and
Sang Ranjuna Tapa) and animals (such as, in fables, Sang Kanchil,
Mr. Mousedeer; and Sang Tikus, Mr. Rat).
"The expression batara is also limited to the greater Hindu divinities
(except when used as a royal title), e.g. Batara Guru, Batara Kala,
Batara Indra, Batara Bisnu, etc. Thus the expressions sang-yang and
batara are fairly coincident in their application. [158] But there
are a few deities of whom the honorific sang-yang is used, but not
batara, e.g. sang-yang tunggal, 'the only God,' sang-yang sokma, etc.
"Thus batara would seem to be limited in use to the actual
names of Hindu deities as distinct from epithets describing those
deities. "Batara Guru" would seem to be an exception--the only one--to
this rule, and to point to the fact that the original meaning of
guru had been lost sight of, and that the expression had come to be
regarded only as a proper name."
Occasionally, as is only to be expected, the Malays get mixed in
their mythology, and of this Mr. Wilkinson gives two examples, one
of the identification of Batara Guru (Shiva) with Brahma (Berahmana),
and another of the drawing of a distinction between "Guru" (Shiva) and
"Mahadewa," which latter is only another name for the same divinity.
Such slips are inevitable among an illiterate people, and should
always be criticised by comparison with the original Hindu tenets,
from which these ideas may be presumed to have proceeded.
Mr. Wilkinson quotes an extraordinary genealogy representing, inter
alia, "Guru as the actual father of the Hindu Trinity," and also of
"Sambu" (whom he cannot identify), and "Seri, who is the Hindu Sri,
the goddess of grain, and, therefore, a deity of immense importance
to the old Javanese and Malays."
On this I would only remark that Sambu (or Jambu) is the first portion
of the name almost universally ascribed to the Crocodile-spirit by
the Peninsular Malays. [159]
It would be beyond the scope of this work to attempt the identification
of Batara Guru (Shiva) with all the numerous manifestations and titles
attributed to him by the Malays, but the special manifestation (of
Shiva), which is called "Kala," forms an integral part of the general
conception, whether among the Malays or Hindus, and is, therefore,
deserving of some attention.
The Malay conception of Batara Guru seems to have been that he had
both a good and a bad side to his character. Though he was "Destroyer"
he was also "Restorer-to-life," [160] and it would appear that these
two opposite manifestations of his power tended to develop into two
distinct personalities, a development which apparently was never
entirely consummated. This, however, is not the only difficulty, for
on investigating the limits of the respective spheres of influence
of Batara Guru and Kala, we find that the only sphere, which is
always admitted to be under Kala's influence, is the intermediate
zone between the respective spheres of influence of Batara Guru (as
he is called if on land, "Si Raya" if at sea) and a third divinity,
who goes by the name of "'Toh Panjang Kuku," or "Grandsire Long-Claws."
Now Hindu mythology, we are told, knows next to nothing of the sea,
and any such attempt as this to define the respective boundaries of
sea and land is almost certain to be due to the influence of Malay
ideas. Again, the intermediate zone is not necessarily considered
less dangerous than that of definitely evil influences. Thus the most
dangerous time for children to be abroad is sunset, the hour when we
can "call it neither perfect day nor night"; so too a day of mingled
rain and sunshine is regarded as fraught with peculiar dangers from
evil spirits, and it would be quite in keeping with such ideas that
the intermediate zone, whether between high and low water-mark, or
between the clearing and primeval forest, should be assigned to Kala,
the Destroyer. In which case the expression "Grandsire Long-Claws"
might be used to signify this special manifestation of Shiva on
land, possibly through the personality of the Tiger, just as the
Crocodile-spirit appears to represent Shiva by water. [161]
We thus reach a point of exceptional interest, for hunting, being
among the old Hindus one of the seven deadly sins, was regarded as a
low pursuit, and one which would never be indulged in by a god. Yet I
was repeatedly told when collecting charms about the Spectre Huntsman
that he was a god, and, explicitly, that he was Batara Guru. This
shows the strength of the Malay influences which had been at work,
and which had actually succeeded in corrupting the character, so to
speak, of the supreme god of this borrowed Hindu Trinity. [162]
The Batara Guru of the Sea, who by some magicians, at all events,
is identified with Si Raya (the "Great One"), and, probably wrongly,
with the God of Mid-currents [163] (Mambang Tali Harus), is of a much
milder character than his terrestrial namesake or compeer, and although
sickness may sometimes be ascribed to the sea-spirit's wrath, it is
neither so sudden nor so fatal as the sickness ascribed to the wanton
and unprovoked malice of the Spectre Huntsman, or Spirit of the Land.
Fishermen and seafarers, on the other hand, obtain many a favour
from him, and even hope to make friends with him by means of simple
sacrifices and charms.
Si Raya (or Madu-Raya) is said to have a family, his wife's name
being Madu-ruti, and his children "Wa' Ranai," and "Si Kekas" (the
scratcher), all of whom, however, have their own separate spheres
of influence. The "Great One" himself (Madu-Raya) rules over the sea
from low-water mark (at the river's mouth) out to mid-ocean; and if
his identity with "'Toh Rimpun `Alam" is accepted, [164] his place
of abode is at the navel of the seas, within the central whirlpool
(Pusat Tasek), from the centre of which springs the Magic Tree (Pauh
Janggi), on whose boughs perches the roc (garuda) of fable, and at
whose foot dwells the Gigantic Crab, whose entrance into and exit from
the cave in which he dwells is supposed to cause the displacement of
water which results in the ebb and flow of the tide. [165]
The only other divinities (of the rank of "Mambangs") which are of
any importance are the "White divinity," who dwells in the Sun, the
"Black divinity," who dwells in the Moon, and the "Yellow divinity,"
who dwells in the Yellow Sunset-glow, which latter is always considered
most dangerous to children.
When there is a decided glow at sunset, any one who sees it takes
water into his mouth (di-kemam ayer) and dislodges it in the direction
of the brightness, at the same time throwing ashes (di-sembor dengan
abu) saying:--
Mambang kuning, mambang k'labu,
Pantat kuning di-sembor abu.
This is done "in order to put out the brightness," the reason that
it must be put out being that in the case of any one who is not very
strong (lemah semangat) it causes fever.
(b) Spirits, Demons, and Ghosts
The "Jins" or "Genii," generally speaking, form a very extensive class
of quite subordinate divinities, godlings, or spirits, whose place
in Malay mythology is clearly due, whether directly or indirectly, to
Muhammadan influences, but who may be most conveniently treated here as
affording a sort of connecting link between gods and ghosts. There has,
it would appear, been a strong tendency on the part of the Malays to
identify these imported spirits with the spirits of their older (Hindu)
religion, but the only Genie who really rises to the level of one of
the great Hindu divinities is the Black King of the Genii (Sang Gala
[166] Raja, or Sa-Raja Jin), who appears at times a manifestation
of Shiva Batara Guru, who is confounded with the destructive side of
Shiva, i.e. Kala. This at least would appear to be the only theory on
which we could explain the use of many of the epithets or attributes
assigned to the King of the Genii, who is at one time called "the
one and only God"; at another, "Bentara (i.e. Batara), Guru, the
Genie that was from the beginning," and at another, "the Land Demon,
the Black Batara Guru," etc.
The following is a description of this, the mightiest of the Genii:--
Peace be with you!
Ho, Black Genie with the Black Liver,
Black Heart and Black Lungs,
Black Spleen and tusk-like Teeth,
Scarlet Breast and body-hairs inverted,
And with only a single bone. [167]
So far as can be made out from the meagre evidence obtainable, the
spirit thus described is identifiable with the Black King of Genii,
who dwells in the Heart of the Earth, and whose bride, Sang Gadin
(or Gading), presented him with seven strapping Black Genii as
children. [168]
Altogether there are one hundred and ninety of these
(Black?) Genii--more strictly, perhaps, one hundred and ninety-three,
which coincides curiously with the number of "Mischiefs" (Badi),
which reside in "all living things." The resemblance, I may add,
does not end here; for though the Genii may do good, and the "Badi"
do not, both are considered able to do infinite harm to mortals, and
both make choice of the same kind of dwelling-places, such as hollows
in the hills, solitary patches of primeval forest, dead parasites on
trees, etc. etc.
As to the origin of these Genii, one magician told me that all "Jins"
came from the country "Ban Ujan," which may possibly be Persia; [169]
other magicians, however, variously derive them from the dissolution
of various parts of the anatomy of the great snake "Sakatimuna,"
of the "First Great Failure" to make man's image (at the creation
of man); from the drops of blood which spirted up to heaven when the
first twins, Abel and Cain (in the Malay version Habil and Kabil) bit
their thumbs; from the big cocoa-nut monkey or baboon (berok besar),
and so on.
The theory already mentioned, viz. that the Black King of the Genii
gradually came to be identified with Kala, and later came gradually
to be established as a separate personality, appears to be the only
one which will satisfactorily explain the relations subsisting between
the Black and White Genii, who are on the one hand distinctly declared
to be brothers, whilst the White Genie is in another passage declared
to be Maharaja Dewa or Mahadewa, which latter is, as we have already
seen, a special name of Shiva.
This White Genie is said to have sprung, by one account, from the
blood-drops which fell on the ground when Habil and Kabil bit their
thumbs; by another, from the irises of the snake Sakatimuna's eyes
(benih mata Sakatimuna), and is sometimes confused with the White
Divinity ('Toh Mambang Puteh), who lives in the sun.
The name of his wife is not mentioned, as it is in the case of
the Black Genie, but the names of three of his children have been
preserved, and they are Tanjak Malim Kaya, Pari Lang (lit. kite-like,
i.e. "winged" Skate), and Bintang Sutan (or Star of Sutan). [170]
On the whole, I may say that the White Genie is very seldom mentioned
in comparison with the Black Genie, and that whereas absolutely no
harm, so far as I can find out, is recorded of him, he is, on the
other hand, appealed to for protection by his worshippers.
A very curious subdivision of Genii into Faithful (Jin Islam) and
Infidel (Jin Kafir) is occasionally met with, and it is said, moreover,
that Genii (it is to be hoped orthodox ones) may be sometimes bought
at Mecca from the "Sheikh Jin" (Headman of Genii) at prices varying
from $90 to $100 a piece. [171]
Besides these subdivisions, certain Genii are sometimes specifically
connected with special objects or ideas. Thus there are the Genii
of the royal musical instruments (Jin Nemfiri, or Lempiri, Gendang,
and Naubat), who are sometimes identified with the Genii of the State
(Jin Karaja'an), and the Genii of the Royal Weapons (Jin Sembuana),
both of which classes of Genii are held able to strike men dead. The
only other Genie that I would here specially mention is the Jin
`Afrit (sometimes called Jin Rafrit), from whom the "White Man" (a
designation which is often specially used in the Peninsula as a synonym
for Englishman) is sometimes said to have sprung, but who belongs in
Arabian mythology to a higher class than the mere Genii. Before leaving
the subject of Genii, I must, however, point out the extremely common
juxtaposition of the Arabic word "Jin" and the Malay "Jembalang." From
the frequency with which this juxtaposition occurs, and from the
fact that the two appear to be used largely as convertible terms,
we might expect to find that Jin and Jembalang were mere synonyms,
both applicable to similar classes of spirits. The process is not
quite complete, however, as although the expression Jembalang Tunggal
(the only Jembalang), is found as well as Jin Tunggal, the higher
honorific Sang Raja or Sa-Raja is never, so far as I am aware,
prefixed to the word "Jembalang," though it is frequently prefixed
to "Jin." Of the other members of the Malay hierarchy who owe their
introduction to Muhammadan influences, the only ones of importance
are angels (Mala'ikat), prophets (Nabi), and headmen (Sheikh).
I will take them in this order.
Of the angels, unquestionably the most important are Azrael (`Azra'il
or `Ijrail), Michael (Mika'il), Israfel (Israfil, Ijrafil, or
Serafil), and Gabriel (Jibra'il or 'Jabra'il, often corrupted into
Raja Brahil). There can be no doubt that the foregoing are meant
for the names of a group of four archangels, the name of Israfel
corresponding to Abdiel, who generally occupies the fourth place in
our own angelic hierarchy.
Their customary duties are apportioned among the four great angels
as follows:--
Azrael is, as with us, the angel of death, who "carries off the
lives of all creatures"; Israfel is "lord of all the different airs"
in our body; Michael is the "giver of daily bread"; and Gabriel is
a messenger or "bringer of news."
Sometimes, again, a White Angel (Mala'ikat Puteh) is mentioned,
e.g. as being in "charge of all things in the jungle," but what his
specific duties are in this connection does not transpire.
In an invocation addressed to the Sea-spirit, however, we find four
more such angels mentioned, all of whom hold similar charges:--
Chitar Ali is the angel's name, who is lord of the whirlpool;
Sabur Ali is the angel's name, who is lord of the winds;
Sir Ali is the angel's name, who is lord of the waters of the sea;
Putar Ali is the angel's name, who is lord of the rainbow.
No doubt the names of many more of the subordinate angels might
be collected, as we are repeatedly told that they are forty-four
in number.
Of the prophets (Nabi) there are an indefinite number, the title
being applied to many of the more prominent characters who figure in
our own Old Testament (as well as in the Koran), but who would not
by ourselves be considered to possess any special qualifications for
prophetic office. Among the more famous of these I may mention (after
Muhammad and his immediate compeers) the prophet Solomon (sometimes
considered--no doubt owing to his unrivalled reputation for magical
skill--as the king of the Genii, whose assistance the hunter or
trapper is continually invoking); the prophet David, celebrated for
the beauty of his voice; and the prophet Joseph, celebrated for the
beauty of his countenance. Besides these (and others of the same type),
there is a group of minor prophets whose assistance is continually
invoked in charms; these are the prophet Tap (Tetap or Ketap?),
"lord of the earth;" the prophet Khailir (Khaithir or Khizr), "lord
of water;" the prophet Noah, "lord of trees;" and the prophet Elias,
"planter of trees."
Khizr is often confounded with Elias. He discovered and drank of
the fountain of life (whence his connection with water), and will
consequently not die till the last trump.
Next to the prophets comes the "Sultan" (Sultan), or "King" (Malik),
both of which Arabic titles, however, are somewhat rarely used by Malay
magicians. Still we find such expressions as Sa-Raja (Sang-Raja?) Malik
(King of Kings) applied to Batara Guru.
Next to these royal honorifics comes the title of "Headman" or
"Sheikh."
There are, it is usually stated, four of these Sheikhs who are
"penned" (di-kandang) in the Four Corners of the Earth respectively,
and whose names are `Abdul Kadir, `Abdul Muri, a third whose name is
not mentioned, and `Abdul `Ali. [172]
Sometimes they are called "Sheikh `Alam" (or Si Putar `Alam), and
are each said to reside "within a ring-fence of white iron." Hence
we obtain a perfectly intelligible meaning for the expression, "Ask
pardon of the Four Corners of the World," i.e. of the Sheikhs who
reside therein, though the phrase sounds ridiculous enough without
such explanation.
The only other Arabic title which is perhaps worth noticing here
[173] is that of "Priest" (Imam), which we find somewhat curiously
used in an invocation addressed to the sea-spirit. "Imam An Jalil is
the name of the 'Priest of the Sea.'"
In the invocation addressed to the Sea-spirit we find the expression:--
"Jungle-chief of the World is the name of the Old Man of the Sea."
There can, however, be little doubt that this "Old Man of the Sea"
is a mere synonym for Batara Guru.
A set of expressions to which special reference should perhaps be
made consists of the titles used by the wild jungle tribes (Sakais),
the use of which is important as confirming the principle that the
"Autochthones" are more influential with the spirits residing in their
land than any later arrivals can be, whatever skill the latter may
have acquired in the magic arts of the country from whence they came.
"Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, Munshi, in his Autobiography, has an
interesting passage on the beliefs of the Malays on the subject of
spirits and demons, beliefs which are much more deeply-rooted than
is generally supposed. He does not, however, differentiate between
national customs and beliefs, and those which have come in with
the Muhammadan religion. And indeed it is not easy to do so. Here,
everything is classed under the generic term sheitan, which is Arabic,
and we find the rakshasa of Hindu romances and the jin and `efrit of
the Arabian Nights in the company of a lot of Indo-Chinese spirits
and goblins, who have not come from the West like the others:--
"I explained to Mr. M. clearly the names of all the sheitan believed
in by Chinese and Malays; all ignorance and folly which have come
down from their ancestors in former times, and exist up to the
present day, much more than I could relate or explain. I merely
enumerated the varieties, such as hantu, sheitan, [174] polong,
[175] pontianak, penanggalan, [176] jin, [177] pelisit, [178]
mambang, [179] hantu pemburu, [180] hantu rimba, jadi-jadian, [181]
hantu bengkus, [182] bota, gargasi, raksaksa, [183] nenek kabayan,
[184] himbasan, [185] sawan, [186] hantu mati di-bunoh, [187]
bajang, [188] katagoran, sempak-kan, puput-kan, [189] `efrit, [190]
jemalang, [191] terkena, [192] ubat guna. [193] Besides all these
there are ever so many ilmu-ilmu (branches of secret knowledge),
all of which I could not remember, such as gagak, [194] penundok,
[195] pengasih, [196] kebal, [197] kasaktian, [198] tuju, [199]
`alimun, [200] penderas, [201] perahuh, [202] chucha, [203] pelali,
[204] perangsang, [205] and a quantity of others. All these are firmly
believed in by the people. Some of these arts have their professors
(guru) from whom instruction may be got. Others have their doctors,
who can say this is such and such a disease, and this is the remedy
for it, and besides these there are all those arts which are able to
cause evil to man. When Mr. M. heard all this he was astonished and
wondered, and said, 'Do you know the stories of all these?' I replied,
'If I were to explain all about them it would fill a large book,
and the contents of the book would be all ignorance and nonsense
without any worth, and sensible persons would not like to listen to
it, they would merely laugh at it.'" [206]
To the foregoing the following list of spirits and ghosts may be added.
The Hantu Kubor (Grave Demons) are the spirits of the dead, who are
believed to prey upon the living whenever they get an opportunity. With
them may be classed the "Hantu orang mati di-bunoh," or "spirits of
murdered men."
"The Hantu Ribut is the storm-fiend that howls in the blast and revels
in the whirlwind." [207]
The Hantu Ayer and Hantu Laut are Water and Sea-spirits, and the
Hantu Bandan is the Spirit of the Waterfall, which "may often be seen
lying prone on the water, with head like an inverted copper (kawah),"
where the water rushes down the fall between the rocks.
The Hantu Longgak [208] is continually looking up in the air. Those
who are attacked by him foam at the mouth.
The Hantu Rimba (Deep-forest Demon), Hantu Raya [209] ("Great"
Demon), Hantu Denei (Demon of Wild-beast-tracks), the Hantu-hantuan
(Echo-spirits), and I think the Hantu Bakal, are all spirits of the
jungle, but are perhaps somewhat less localised than the large class
of spirits (such as the Malacca-cane, gharu, gutta, and camphor-tree
spirits) which are specially associated with particular trees.
The Hantu B'rok is the Baboon Demon (the B'rok being what is generally
called the "cocoa-nut monkey," a sort of big baboon); it is sometimes
supposed to take possession of dancers, and enable them, whilst
unconscious, to perform wonderful climbing feats.
The Hantu Belian, according to many Selangor Malays, is a tiger-spirit
which takes the form of a bird. This bird is said to be not unlike the
raquet-tailed king-crow (chenchawi), and to sit on the tiger's back;
whence it plucks out the tiger's fur and swallows it, never allowing
it to fall to the ground. [210]
The Hantu Songkei [211] is the spirit who so often interferes with
the toils for catching wild animals and snares for wildfowl (yang
kachau jaring dan rachik). He is described as being invisible below
the breast, with a nose of enormous length, and eye-sockets stretched
sideways to such an extent that he can see all round him.
The following charm is recited in order to "neutralise" his evil
influence:--
Peace be with you, grandson of the Spectre Huntsman,
Whose Dwelling-place is a solitary patch of primeval forest,
Whose Chair is the nook between the buttresses (of trees),
Whose Leaning-post the wild Areca-palm,
Whose Roof the (leaves of the) Tukas,
Whose Body-hairs are leaves of the Resam,
Whose Mattress leaves of the Lerek,
Whose Swing the (tree) Medang Jelawei,
And whose Swing-ropes are Malacca-cane-plants
The Gift of His Highness Sultan Berumbongan,
Who dwelt at Pagar Ruyong,
In the House whose posts were heart of the Tree-nettle,
Whose threshold a stem of Spinach,
Strewn over with stems of the Purut-purut,
Whose Body-hairs were inverted,
And whose Breasts were four in number,
To whom belonged the Casting-net for Flies,
And whose drum was "headed" with the skins of lice.
Break not faith with me,
(Or) you shall be killed by the Impact of the Sanctity of the
Four Corners of the World,
Killed by the Impact of the Forty-four Angels,
Killed by the Impact of the Pillar of the Ka`bah,
Killed by the Thrust of the sacred Lump of Iron,
Killed by the Shaft of the Thunderbolt,
Killed by the Pounce of Twilight Lightning,
Killed by the Impact of the Thirty Sections of the Koran,
Killed by the Impact of the Saying, "There is no god but God,"
etc.
Giants are called Bota (Bhuta), Raksasa, and Gargasi (gasi-gasi or
gegasi), or sometimes Hantu Tinggi ("Tall Demons"), the first two of
these names being clearly derivable from a Sanskrit origin.
In addition to those enumerated we may add the various classes of
"good people," such as the Bidadari (or Bediadari) or Peri (fairies
and elves), which are of foreign origin, and the "Orang Bunyian,"
a class of Malay spirits about whom very little seems known. The
latter appear to be a race of good fairies, who are so simple-minded
that they can be very easily cheated. Thus it is always said of them,
that whenever they come into a hamlet, as they may occasionally do,
to buy anything, they always pay without bargaining whatever price
is asked, however exorbitant it may be. I have been told of their
existence at Kapar village (near Klang in Selangor), at Jugra, where
it was said they might formerly be heard paddling their boats upon
the river when no boat was visible, and elsewhere.
Besides these there are several kinds of bloodsucking (vampire) demons,
which are mostly Birth-spirits; and also certain incubi, such as the
Hantu Kopek, which is the Malay equivalent of our own "night-mare."
CHAPTER V
Magic Rites connected with the Several Departments of Nature
(a) Air
1. WIND AND WEATHER CHARMS
Not the least important attribute of the Malay magician in former
days was his power of controlling the weather--a power of which Malay
magic incantations still preserve remarkable traces.
Thus when the wind fails and the sails of a boat are flapping (kalau
layer k'lepek-k'lepek), a Selangor magician would not unfrequently
summon the wind in the following terms:--
"Come hither, Sir, come hither, my Lord,
Let down your locks so long and flowing."
And if the wind is contrary he would say:--
"Veer round, Wind, a needle or twain (of the compass),
A needle to (let me) fetch Kapar. [212]
However heavy the merchandise that I carry unassisted,
Let me repair to Klang for the (morning) meal,
And Langat for the (evening) bathe.
Come hither, Sir, come hither, my Lord,
And let down your locks so long and flowing."
Again, if the wind grew violent he would say:--
"Eggs of the House-lizard, Eggs of the Grass-lizard,
Make a trio with Eggs of the Tortoise.
I plant this pole thus in the mid-stream
(That) Wind and Tempest may come to naught.
Let the White (ones) turn into Chalk,
And the Black (one) into Charcoal. [213]
Sometimes the magician will fasten a rice-spoon (chemcha) [214]
horizontally to the mast of the vessel, and repeat some such charm
as the following:--
"The bird 'Anggau-anggau' flies
To perch on the house of Malim Palita.
May you die as you lean, may you die from a push,
May you die by this 'sending' of 'Prince Rice-spoon's.'" [215]
Of rain-making ceremonies in Selangor there now remains little but
tradition. Yet a Langat Malay told me that if a Malay woman puts
upon her head an inverted [216] earthenware pan (b'langa), and then,
setting it upon the ground, fills it with water and washes the cat
in it until the latter is more than half drowned, heavy rain will
certainly ensue. [217]
On the other hand the recital of the following charm will, it is
believed, effectually stop the heaviest downpour:--
"Though the stem of the Meranti tree [218] rocks to and fro
(in the storm),
Let the Yam leaves be as thick as possible, [219]
That Rain and Tempest may come to naught."
With the foregoing should be classed such charms as are used by the
Malays to dispel the yellow sunset glow. [220]
2. BIRDS AND BIRD CHARMS
The chief features of the Bird-lore of the Peninsular Malays, which,
as will appear in the course of this chapter, is strongly tinged with
animism, have been thus described by Sir William Maxwell:--
"Ideas of various characters are associated by Malays with birds of
different kinds, and many of their favourite similes are furnished by
the feathered world. The peacock strutting in the jungle, the argus
pheasant calling on the mountain peak, the hoot of the owl, and the
cry of the night-jar, have all suggested comparisons of various kinds,
which are embodied in the proverbs of the people. [221] The Malay
is a keen observer of nature, and his illustrations, drawn from such
sources, are generally just and often poetical.
"The supernatural bird Gerda (Garuda, the eagle of Vishnu), who
figures frequently in Malay romances, is dimly known to the Malay
peasant. If, during the day, the sun is suddenly overcast by clouds
and shadow succeeds to brilliancy, the Perak Malay will say "Gerda is
spreading out his wings to dry." [222] Tales are told, too, of other
fabulous birds [223]--the jintayu, which is never seen, though its
note is heard, and which announces the approach of rain; [224] and the
chandrawasi, which has no feet. The chandrawasi lives in the air, and
is constantly on the wing, never descending to earth or alighting on
a tree. Its young even are produced without the necessity of touching
the earth. The egg is allowed to drop, and as it nears the earth it
bursts, and the young bird appears fully developed. The note of the
chandrawasi may often be heard at night, but never by day, and it is
lucky, say the Malays, to halt at a spot where it is heard calling. "There is an allusion to this bird in a common pantun--a kind of erotic stanza very popular among the Malays:-- |
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