The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America 16

The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America 16

SEWING: two common styles of root stitching used in bark canoes.]

 

The piecing of the side panels was done with a great variety of sewing

styles, according to strength requirements. The strain put upon the

bark in molding it by rib pressure was greater in the midlength than

in the ends; and the sewing differed accordingly. The over-and-over

spiral, with a batten under the sewing, was used for sewing in the

midlength, as was back-stitching, a variety of basting stitch in which

a new pass is started about half way between stitches, thus forming

overlapped passes or turns. Back-stitching was usually done in a

direction slightly diagonal to the line of sewing, so as to cross

the grain of the bark at an angle with each pass. The double-thong

in-and-out stitch, in which each thong goes through the same hole from

opposite sides, was frequently used. The simple, spiral over-and-over

stitch was used in sewing panels in the ends of canoes, as was the

simple, in-and-out basting stitch using either a single or double

strand.

 

When the sides were pieced out edge-to-edge, the sewing was usually

done spirally, over and over a narrow, thin batten placed outside the

bark cover. This batten might be either a thin split sapling or, more

commonly, a split and thinned piece of root. If the pieced-out sides

were lapped, then the harness stitch was commonly used. The lap might

be some inches wide to decrease the danger of splitting while the bark

was being punched with the awl, afterward the surplus was cut away

leaving about a half inch of overlap. On rare occasions the strength

of a lapped-edge seam was increased by the use of a parallel row of

stitching.

 

[Illustration: Figure 37

 

COMPARISON OF CANOE ON THE BUILDING BED (above), with gunwales or

building frame weighted down by stones inside bark cover, and (below)

canoe when first removed from building bed during fifth stage of

construction. (_Sketches by Adney._)]

 

In making the canoe watertight, it is to be remembered that some forms

of stitch make the bark lie up tight all along its edges while others

bind only where the stitch crosses the seam. The in-and-out stitch,

which was used only above the waterline, cannot be pulled up hard

without causing the bark to pucker and split and cannot be made very

watertight with gum. The over-and-over stitch, in either a spiral

form or square across the seam on the outside and diagonally on the

inside, is very strong; when a batten is used under the stitches it

can be pulled up hard and allows a very watertight gumming. When this

style of sewing is used without a batten across the run of the grain,

as in the gore seams, it cannot be pulled up as hard, but will serve.

Back-stitching, which was much used in the topsides, can be pulled up

quite hard and makes a tight seam when gummed, as do the harness stitch

and cross-stitch. The ends, regardless of the style of sewing used,

were more readily made tight by gumming than the other seams in a bark

canoe.

 

Two basic methods, with some slight and unimportant variations, were

used to fasten the bark to the gunwales. One employed a continuous

over-and-over stitch, the other employed groups of lashings. On a canoe

with the lashing continuous along the gunwales, the turns were made

two or more times through the same hole on each side of each rib head

to allow space for them. This might also be done where the lashing was

in groups, as described above. Usually, a measuring stick was used to

space the groups between thwart ends so that each group came between

the rib heads. The groupings could be independent lashings, or the

strand could be carried from one group to another. If the latter, it

was passed along under the gunwale in a number of in-and-out stitches

or in a single lone stitch either inside or out, or else it was brought

around over the gunwale from the last full turn. Some tribes use both

ends of the lashing, passing them through the same hole in the bark

from opposite directions below the gunwales; the ends might be carried

in the same manner in a long stitch to the next group. In some elm and

other bark canoes employing basswood or cedar-bark lashings the bark

was tied with a single turn at wide intervals; when roots were used

in these, however, small groupings of stitches were customary. When

group lashings were used with birch bark, the intervals between groups

was usually relatively short, though in a few canoes the groups and

intervals were of nearly equal length.

 

[Illustration: Figure 38

 

THIRD STAGE OF CANOE CONSTRUCTION: the bark cover is shaped on the

building bed. The gores have been cut; part of the cover is shaped and

secured by stakes and battens. "A" shows battens secured by sticks

lashed to stakes. (_Sketch by Adney_.)]

 

In an independent group, the ends of the strand were treated as in

whipping, the tail being under the first turns made and the end tucked

back under the last--usually on the inside of the gunwales. Where there

were inner and outer gunwales the lashing was always around both,

and the tail might be jammed between them. If a cap was used on the

gunwales, the lashings were always under it. The use of a knotted turn

to start a lashing occurred only in the old Têtes de Boule canoes.

 

On the Malecite canoe, the sides are pieced out in one to three panels

rather than in one long, narrow panel on each side. The panel for the

midlength requires the greatest strength and is usually lapped inside

the bottom bark. The latter is first trimmed straight along its edge,

and the panel inserted behind it with a couple of inches of lap. Then

the two pieces of bark are sewn together over a halved-root batten with

an over-and-over stitch. (Other tribes used some form of the harness

stitch, or a similar style, allowing great strength.) The middle panel

does not extend much beyond the ends of the first pair of thwarts on

each side of the middle. The next panels toward the ends are lapped

outside the bottom bark and are sewn with the back-stitch. Then,

if still another panel is required at each end, this too is lapped

outside and is sewn in the lap with an in-and-out stitch. The ends of

the panels are usually sewn with an over-and-over stitch that runs

square with the seam outside and diagonally to it inside the bark. (The

harness stitch was used here by some tribes, as were many forms of the

cross-stitch.) The ends of the canoe and the gores have already been

sewn during an earlier stage of the building process.

 

Once the sides are pieced out, the bark is ready to be turned up and

around the gunwale frame and clamped perpendicularly. To effect this,

small stakes are made by halving saplings, so that each half is about a

half inch thick. The butt of each half is cut chisel-shaped, with the

bevel on the flat side; the rounded face is smoothed off, and it may

be tapered toward the head of the stake. Between two of the slashes

a length of bark is now brought up against the outer stakes; against

the bark the small, inside stake is placed with the round face of the

chisel-pointed butt wedged against the outer face of the gunwale. The

top is then levered against the outside stake, so that the flat face of

each clamps the bark in place. The top of the inner stake is then bound

to the outer.

 

[Illustration: Figure 39

 

CROSS SECTION of canoe on building bed during third stage of

construction (above) and fourth stage. (_Sketch by Adney._)]

 

In setting the inside stakes, care is taken that their points do not

pierce the bark. No inside stakes are required at the ends, as here the

outside stakes are so close together in opposing pairs as to hold the

bark in a sharp fold along the centerline of the cover. This of course

is also true of the stakes beyond the ends of the gunwales.

 

After a few lengths of bark have been thus secured, they are faired

between the stakes by inserting thin strips of split sapling, or

battens of wood or root, along each side of the bark, under the inside

and outside stakes. These battens are placed about halfway up the

upturned bark. Some builders used long wooden battens, as this gave a

very fair side when enough lengths were secured upright; others got

the same results with short battens, the ends of which were overlapped

between a pair of stakes on each side.

 

[Illustration: Figure 40

 

MULTIPLE CROSS SECTION through one side of a canoe on the building

bed: at the headboard, middle, first, and second thwarts. Gunwale is

raised and supported on sheering posts set under thwarts. Crown of

the building bed is shown by varying heights of bottoms of the four

sections.]

 

When the bark has been turned up and clamped, the gores may be trimmed

to allow it to be sewn with edge-to-edge seams at each slash. This

is usually done after the sides are faired, by moving the battens up

and down as the cuts are made, then replacing them in their original

position. The gores or slashes, if overlapped, are not usually sewn at

this stage of construction.

 

With the inside stakes in place, the longitudinal battens secured,

and the gores cut or the overlaps properly arranged, all is ready for

sheering the gunwales. First the weights are removed from the gunwale

frame so that it can be lifted. If the inside stakes have been properly

made and fitted this can be done without disturbing the sides, though

the ties across each pair of outside stakes may have to be slacked

off somewhat. Before lifting the frame, some short posts, usually of

sapling or of waste from splitting out the gunwales and thwarts, are

cut in lengths determined by the measuring stick or from memory, one

for each end of each thwart, and one for each end of the gunwale frame.

Those under the middle thwart ends in this canoe are 7½ inches long,

those under the next thwarts out from the middle will be 9 inches,

those under the end thwarts will be 12 inches, and those at the gunwale

ends will be 17 inches long. These posts, cut with squared butts, are

laid alongside the bed. The gunwale frame is now lifted and the pair of

posts to go under the middle thwart are stepped on the bark cover, the

gunwale is lowered onto them, and while the frame and posts are held

steady, stones are laid on a plank over the middle thwart. Next, the

ends of the gunwales are held and lifted so that a pair of posts can be

placed at the thwarts next out from the middle. More weights are placed

over these, the operation is repeated for the end thwarts and, finally

at the gunwale ends, so that the gunwales now stand on posts on the

bark cover, sprung to the correct fore-and-aft sheer and steadied by

the bearing of the outside of the gunwale frame on the rounded faces of

the inside stakes. Now the sheer has been established and the depth of

the canoe is approximated.

 

[Illustration: Figure 41

 

FOURTH STAGE OF CANOE CONSTRUCTION: bark cover has been shaped and

all stakes placed. The gunwales have been raised to sheer height; "A"

indicates the sticks which fix the sheer of the gunwales; "B" indicates

blocks placed under ends to form rocker. Side panels are shown in

place, and cover is being sewn to gunwales. (_Sketch by Adney._)]

 

To protect the bark cover from the thrust of the weights used to

ballast the frame, some builders inserted small bark or wood shields

for padding under the heels of the posts. By some tribes the posts were

notched on one face, to fit inside the gunwales near the thwarts, and

there were also other ways of assembling the gunwales themselves.

 

It should be apparent that the operations just described would serve

only for canoes in which the sheer had a gentle, fair sweep. For canoes

in which the sheer turned up sharply at the ends, the gunwale members

might have to be split into laminations and prebent to the required

sheer before being assembled into the gunwale frame. To accomplish

this, the laminations were scalded with boiling water until saturated

and then the gunwale members were staked out on the ground or tied

with cords to set the wood in the desired curves as it dried out. The

laminations were then wrapped with cord and the gunwale was ready to

assemble. To produce a hogged sheer, the gunwales were made of green

spruce and then staked out to season in the form desired; a hogged

sheer was also formed by steaming or boiling the gunwale members at midlength.