Isch. Well then, supposing we begin to plough our land in winter?
Soc. It would not do. There would be too much mud.
Isch. Well then, what would you say to summer?
Soc. The soil will be too hard in summer for a plough and a pair of oxen
to break up.
Isch. It looks as if spring-time were the season to begin this work,
then? What do you say?
Soc. I say, one may expect the soil broken up at that season of the year
to crumble [12] best.
[12] {kheisthai} = laxari, dissolvi, to be most friable, to scatter
readily.
Isch. Yes, and grasses [13] turned over at that season, Socrates, serve
to supply the soil already with manure; while as they have not shed
their seed as yet, they cannot vegetate. [14] I am supposing that you
recognise a further fact: to form good land, a fallow must be clean and
clear of undergrowth and weeds, [15] and baked as much as possible by
exposure to the sun. [16]
[13] "Herbage," whether grass or other plants, "grass," "clover," etc;
Theophr. "Hist. Pl." i. 3. 1; Holden, "green crops."
[14] Lit. "and not as yet have shed their seed so as to spring into
blade."
[15] Or, "quitch."
[16] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." i. 65, coquat; ii. 260, excoquere. So
Lucr. vi. 962.
Soc. Yes, that is quite a proper state of things, I should imagine.
Isch. And to bring about this proper state of things, do you maintain
there can be any other better system than that of turning the soil over
as many times as possible in summer?
Soc. On the contrary, I know precisely that for either object, whether
to bring the weeds and quitch grass to the surface and to wither them by
scorching heat, or to expose the earth itself to the sun's baking rays,
there can be nothing better than to plough the soil up with a pair of
oxen during mid-day in midsummer.
Isch. And if a gang of men set to, to break and make this fallow with
the mattock, it is transparent that their business is to separate the
quitch grass from the soil and keep them parted?
Soc. Just so!--to throw the quitch grass down to wither on the surface,
and to turn the soil up, so that the crude earth may have its turn of
baking.
XVII
You see, Socrates (he said, continuing the conversation), we hold the
same opinion, both of us, concerning fallow.
Why, so it seems (I said)--the same opinion.
Isch. But when it comes to sowing, what is your opinion? Can you suggest
a better time for sowing than that which the long experience of former
generations, combined with that of men now living, recognises as
the best? See, so soon as autumn time has come, the faces of all men
everywhere turn with a wistful gaze towards high heaven. "When will God
moisten the earth," they ask, "and suffer men to sow their seed?" [1]
[1] See Dr. Holden's interesting note at this point: "According to
Virgil ('Georg.' i. 215), spring is the time," etc.
Yes, Ischomachus (I answered), for all mankind must recognise the
precept: [2] "Sow not on dry soil" (if it can be avoided), being taught
wisdom doubtless by the heavy losses they must struggle with who sow
before God's bidding.
[2] Or, "it is a maxim held of all men."
Isch. It seems, then, you and I and all mankind hold one opinion on
these matters?
Soc. Why, yes; where God himself is teacher, such accord is apt to
follow; for instance, all men are agreed, it is better to wear thick
clothes [3] in winter, if so be they can. We light fires by general
consent, provided we have logs to burn.
[3] Or, "a thick cloak." See Rich, s.v. Pallium (= {imation}).
Yet as regards this very period of seed-time (he made answer), Socrates,
we find at once the widest difference of opinion upon one point; as to
which is better, the early, or the later, [4] or the middle sowing?
[4] See Holden ad loc. Sauppe, "Lex. Xen.," notes {opsimos} as Ionic
and poet. See also Rutherford, "New Phryn." p. 124: "First met
with in a line of the 'Iliad' (ii. 325), {opsimos} does not appear
till late Greek except in the 'Oeconomicus,' a disputed work of
Xenophon."
Soc. Just so, for neither does God guide the year in one set fashion,
but irregularly, now suiting it to early sowing best, and now to middle,
and again to later.
Isch. But what, Socrates, is your opinion? Were it better for a man to
choose and turn to sole account a single sowing season, be it much he
has to sow or be it little? or would you have him begin his sowing with
the earliest season, and sow right on continuously until the latest?
And I, in my turn, answered: I should think it best, Ischomachus, to use
indifferently the whole sowing season. [5] Far better [6] to have enough
of corn and meal at any moment and from year to year, than first a
superfluity and then perhaps a scant supply.
[5] Or, "share in the entire period of seed time." Zeune cf. "Geop."
ii. 14. 8; Mr. Ruskin's translators, "Bibl. Past." vol. i.; cf.
Eccles. xi. 6.
[6] Lit. "according to my tenet," {nomizo}.
Isch. Then, on this point also, Socrates, you hold a like opinion with
myself--the pupil to the teacher; and what is more, the pupil was the
first to give it utterance.
So far, so good! (I answered). Is there a subtle art in scattering the
seed?
Isch. Let us by all means investigate that point. That the seed must be
cast by hand, I presume you know yourself?
Soc. Yes, by the testimony of my eyes. [7]
[7] Lit. "Yes, for I have seen it done."
Isch. But as to actual scattering, some can scatter evenly, others
cannot. [8]
[8] Holden cf. W. Harte, "Essays on Husbandry," p. 210, 2nd ed., "The
main perfection of sowing is to disperse the seeds equally."
Soc. Does it not come to this, the hand needs practice (like the fingers
of a harp-player) to obey the will?
Isch. Precisely so, but now suppose the soil is light in one part and
heavy in another?
Soc. I do not follow; by "light" do you mean weak? and by "heavy"
strong?
Isch. Yes, that is what I mean. And the question which I put to you
is this: Would you allow both sorts of soil an equal share of seed? or
which the larger? [9]
[9] See Theophr. "Hist. Pl." viii. 6. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 275.
Holden cf. Adam Dickson, "Husbandry of the Ancients," vol. ii. 35.
33 f. (Edin. 1788), "Were the poor light land in Britain managed
after the manner of the Roman husbandry, it would certainly
require much less seed than under its present management."
Soc. The stronger the wine the larger the dose of water to be added, I
believe. The stronger, too, the man the heavier the weight we will
lay upon his back to carry: or if it is not porterage, but people to
support, there still my tenet holds: the broader and more powerful the
great man's shoulders, the more mouths I should assign to him to feed.
But perhaps a weak soil, like a lean pack-horse, [10] grows stronger the
more corn you pour into it. This I look to you to teach me. [11]
[10] Or, "lean cattle."
[11] Or, "Will you please answer me that question, teacher?"
With a laugh, he answered: Once more you are pleased to jest. Yet rest
assured of one thing, Socrates: if after you have put seed into the
ground, you will await the instant when, while earth is being richly
fed from heaven, the fresh green from the hidden seed first springs, and
take and turn it back again, [12] this sprouting germ will serve as food
for earth: as from manure an inborn strength will presently be added to
the soil. But if you suffer earth to feed the seed of corn within it and
to bring forth fruit in an endless round, at last [13] it will be hard
for the weakened soil to yield large corn crops, even as a weak sow can
hardly rear a large litter of fat pigs.
[12] "If you will plough the seedlings in again."
[13] {dia telous... es telos}, "continually... in the end." See
references in Holden's fifth edition.
Soc. I understand you to say, Ischomachus, that the weaker soil must
receive a scantier dose of seed?
Isch. Most decidedly I do, and you on your side, Socrates, I understand,
give your consent to this opinion in stating your belief that the weaker
the shoulders the lighter the burdens to be laid on them.
Soc. But those hoers with their hoes, Ischomachus, tell me for what
reason you let them loose [14] upon the corn.
[14] Cf. "Revenues," iv. 5.
Isch. You know, I daresay, that in winter there are heavy rains? [15]
[15] "And melting snows, much water every way."
Soc. To be sure, I do.
Isch. We may suppose, then, that a portion of the corn is buried by
these floods beneath a coat of mud and slime, or else that the roots are
laid quite bare in places by the torrent. By reason of this same drench,
I take it, oftentimes an undergrowth of weeds springs up with the corn
and chokes it.
Soc. Yes, all these ills are likely enough to happen.
Isch. Are you not agreed the corn-fields sorely need relief at such a
season?
Soc. Assuredly.
Isch. Then what is to be done, in your opinion? How shall we aid the
stricken portion lying mud-bedabbled?
Soc. How better than by lifting up and lightening the soil?
Isch. Yes! and that other portion lying naked to the roots and
defenceless, how aid it?
Soc. Possibly by mounding up fresh earth about it. [16]
[16] "Scraping up a barrier of fresh earth about it."
Isch. And what when the weeds spring up together with the corn and choke
it? or when they rob and ruthlessly devour the corn's proper sustenance,
like unserviceable drones [17] that rob the working bees of honey,
pilfering the good food which they have made and stored away with
labour: what must we do?
[17] Cf. Shakesp. "Lazy yawning drones," "Henry V." I. ii. 204.
Soc. In good sooth, there can be nothing for it save to cut out the
noisome weed, even as drones are cleared out from the hive.
Isch. You agree there is some show of reason for letting in these gangs
of hoers?
Soc. Most true. And now I am turning over in my mind, [18] Ischomachus,
how grand a thing it is to introduce a simile or such like figure well
and aptly. No sooner had you mentioned the word "drones" than I was
filled with rage against those miserable weeds, far more than when you
merely spoke of weeds and undergrowth.
[18] Or, "I was just this moment pondering the virtue of a happy
illustration." Lit. "what a thing it is to introduce an 'image'
({tas eikonas}) well." See Plat. "Rep." 487 E, {de eikonos}, "in a
parable" (Jowett); "Phaed." 87 B, "a figure"; Aristoph. "Clouds,"
559; Plat. "Phaedr." 267 C; Aristot. "Rhet." III. iv. As to the
drones, J. J. Hartman, "An. X." 186, aptly cf. Aristoph. "Wasps,"
1114 f.
XVIII
But, not to interrupt you further (I continued), after sowing, naturally
we hope to come to reaping. If, therefore, you have anything to say on
that head also, pray proceed to teach me.
Isch. Yes, by all means, unless indeed you prove on this head also to
know as much yourself already as your teacher. To begin then: You know
that corn needs cutting?
Soc. To be sure, I know that much at any rate.
Isch. Well, then, the next point: in the act of cutting corn how will
you choose to stand? facing the way the wind blows, [1] or against the
wind?
[1] Lit. "(on the side) where the wind blows or right opposite."
Soc. Not against the wind, for my part. Eyes and hands must suffer, I
imagine, if one stood reaping face to face with husks and particles of
straw. [2]
[2] i.e. "with particles of straw and beards of corn blowing in one's
face."
Isch. And should you merely sever the ears at top, or reap close to the
ground? [3]
[3] See Holden ad loc.; Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, "Husbandry," 27 (ed.
1767), "In Somersetshire... they do share theyr wheate very
lowe...."
If the stalk of corn were short (I answered), I should cut down close,
to secure a sufficient length of straw to be of use. But if the stalk be
tall, you would do right, I hold, to cut it half-way down, whereby the
thresher and the winnower will be saved some extra labour (which both
may well be spared). [4] The stalk left standing in the field, when
burnt down (as burnt it will be, I presume), will help to benefit the
soil; [5] and laid on as manure, will serve to swell the volume of
manure. [6]
[4] Lit. "will be spared superfluous labour on what they do not want."
[5] Al. "if burnt down...; if laid on as manure..."
[6] "Help to swell the bulk" (Holden). For the custom see Virg.
"Georg." i. 84; J. Tull, op. cit. ix. 141: "The custom of burning
the stubble on the rich plains about Rome continues to this time."
Isch. There, Socrates, you are detected "in the very act"; you know as
much about reaping as I do myself.
It looks a little like it (I replied). But I would fain discover whether
I have sound knowledge also about threshing.
Isch. Well, I suppose you are aware of this much: corn is threshed by
beasts of burthen? [7]
[7] Holden cf. Dr. Davy, "Notes and Observations on the Ionian
Islands." "The grain is beaten out, commonly in the harvest field,
by men, horses, or mules, on a threshing-floor prepared extempore
for the purpose, where the ground is firm and dry, and the chaff
is separated by winnowing."--Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," ii.
41 foll.
Soc. Yes, I am aware of that much, and beast of burthen is a general
name including oxen, horses, mules, and so forth. [8]
[8] See Varro, i. 52, as to tritura and ventilatio.
Isch. Is it your opinion that these animals know more than merely how to
tread the corn while driven with the goad?
Soc. What more can they know, being beasts of burthen?
Isch. Some one must see, then, that the beasts tread out only what
requires threshing and no more, and that the threshing is done evenly
itself: to whom do you assign that duty, Socrates?
Soc. Clearly it is the duty of the threshers who are in charge. [9] It
is theirs to turn the sheaves, and ever and again to push the untrodden
corn under the creatures' feet; and thus, of course, to keep the
threshing-floor as smooth, and finish off the work as fast, as possible.
[9] Or, "to the over-threshers," "the drivers" (Holden).
Isch. Your comprehension of the facts thus far, it seems, keeps pace
with mine.
Soc. Well, after that, Ischomachus, we will proceed to cleanse the corn
by winnowing. [10]
[10] Breit. cf. Colum. "de r. r." ii. 10, 14, 21; vide Rich, s.v.
ventilabrum.
Isch. Yes, but tell me, Socrates; do you know that if you begin the
process from the windward portion (of the threshing-floor), you will
find your chaff is carried over the whole area.
Soc. It must be so.
Isch. Then it is more than likely the chaff will fall upon the corn.
Soc. Yes, considering the distance, [11] the chaff will hardly be
carried across the corn into the empty portion of the threshing-floor.
[11] Lit. "it is a long space for the chaff to be carried." Al. (1)
"It is of great consequence the chaff should be carried beyond the
corn." (2) "It often happens that the corn is blown not only on to
the corn, but over and beyond it into the empty portion of the
threshing-floor." So Breit.
Isch. But now, suppose you begin winnowing on the "lee" side of the
threshing-floor? [12]
[12] Or, "on the side of the threshing-floor opposite the wind." Al.
"protected from the wind."
Soc. It is clear the chaff will at once fall into the chaff-receiver.
[13]
[13] A hollowed-out portion of the threshing-floor, according to
Breitenbach.
Isch. And when you have cleansed the corn over half the floor, will you
proceed at once, with the corn thus strewn in front of you, to winnow
the remainder, [14] or will you first pack the clean grain into the
narrowest space against the central pillar? [15]
[14] Lit. "of the chaff," where we should say "corn," the winnowing
process separating chaff from grain and grain from chaff.
[15] If that is the meaning of {ton polon}. Al. "the outer edge or rim
of the threshing-floor."
Soc. Yes, upon my word! first pack together the clean grain, and
proceed. My chaff will now be carried into the empty portion of the
floor, and I shall escape the need of winnowing twice over. [16]
[16] Or, "the same chaff (i.e. unwinnowed corn, Angl. corn) twice."
Isch. Really, Socrates, you are fully competent yourself, it seems, to
teach an ignorant world [17] the speediest mode of winnowing.
[17] Lit. "After all, Socrates, it seems you could even teach another
how to purge his corn most expeditiously."
Soc. It seems, then, as you say, I must have known about these matters,
though unconsciously; and here I stand and beat my brains, [18]
reflecting whether or not I may not know some other things--how to
refine gold and play the flute and paint pictures--without being
conscious of the fact. Certainly, as far as teaching goes, no one ever
taught me these, no more than husbandry; while, as to using my own eyes,
I have watched men working at the other arts no less than I have watched
them till the soil.
[18] Lit. "all this while, I am thinking whether..."
Isch. Did I not tell you long ago that of all arts husbandry was the
noblest, the most generous, just because it is the easiest to learn?
Soc. That it is without a doubt, Ischomachus. It seems I must have known
the processes of sowing, without being conscious of my knowledge. [19]
[19] Or, "but for all my science, I was ignorant (of knowing my own
knowledge)."
XIX
Soc. (continuing). But may I ask, is the planting of trees [1] a
department in the art of husbandry?
[1] i.e. of fruit trees, the vine, olive, fig, etc.
Isch. Certainly it is.
Soc. How is it, then, that I can know about the processes of sowing and
at the same time have no knowledge about planting?
Isch. Is it so certain that you have no knowledge?
Soc. How can you ask me? when I neither know the sort of soil in which
to plant, nor yet the depth of hole [2] the plant requires, nor the
breadth, or length of ground in which it needs to be embedded; [3] nor
lastly, how to lay the plant in earth, with any hope of fostering its
growth. [4]
[2] Reading {to phuto}, "nor yet how deep or broad to sink (the hole)
for the plant." Holden (ed. 1886) supplies {bothunon}. Al.
{bothron}.
[3] See Loudon, "Encycl. of Agric." S. 407, ap. Holden: "In France
plantations of the vine are made by dibbling in cuttings of two
feet of length; pressing the earth firmly to their lower end, an
essential part of the operation, noticed even by Xenophon."
[4] Lit. "how, laid in the soil, the plant will best shoot forth or
grow."
Isch. Come, then, to lessons, pupil, and be taught whatever you do not
know already! You have seen, I know, the sort of trenches which are dug
for plants?
Soc. Hundreds of times.
Isch. Did you ever see one more than three feet deep?
Soc. No, I do not think I ever saw one more than two and a half feet
deep.
Isch. Well, as to the breadth now. Did you ever see a trench more than
three feet broad? [5]
[5] Or, "width," "wide." The commentators cf. Plin. "H. N." xvii. 11,
16, 22; Columell. v. 5. 2; ib. iii. 15. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 288.
Soc. No, upon my word, not even more than two feet broad.
Isch. Good! now answer me this question: Did you ever see a trench less
than one foot deep?
Soc. No, indeed! nor even less than one foot and a half. Why, the plants
would be no sooner buried than dug out again, if planted so extremely
near the surface.
Isch. Here, then, is one matter, Socrates, which you know as well as any
one. [6] The trench is not to be sunk deeper than two feet and a half,
or shallower than one foot and a half.
[6] Lit. "quite adequately."
Soc. Obviously, a thing so plain appeals to the eye at once.
Isch. Can you by eyesight recognise the difference between a dry soil
and a moist?
Soc. I should certainly select as dry the soil round Lycabettus, [7] and
any that resembles it; and as moist, the soil in the marsh meadows of
Phalerum, [8] or the like.
[7] See Leake, "Topog. of Athens," i. 209.
[8] Or, "the Phaleric marsh-land." See Leake, ib. 231, 427; ii. 9.
Isch. In planting, would you dig (what I may call) deep trenches in a
dry soil or a moist?
Soc. In a dry soil certainly; at any rate, if you set about to dig deep
trenches in the moist you will come to water, and there and then an end
to further planting.
Isch. You could not put it better. We will suppose, then, the trenches
have been dug. Does your eyesight take you further? [9] Have you noticed
at what season in either case [10] the plants must be embedded?
[9] Lit. "As soon as the trenches have been dug then, have you further
noticed..."
[10] (1) The vulg. reading {openika... ekatera} = "at what precise
time... either (i.e. 'the two different' kinds of) plant," i.e.
"vine and olive" or "vine and fig," I suppose; (2) Breit. emend.
{opotera... en ekatera} = "which kind of plant... in either
soil..."; (3) Schenkl. etc., {openika... en ekatera} = "at
what season... in each of the two sorts of soil..."
Soc. Certainly. [11]
[11] There is an obvious lacuna either before or after this remark, or
at both places.
Isch. Supposing, then, you wish the plants to grow as fast as
possible: how will the cutting strike and sprout, do you suppose, most
readily?--after you have laid a layer of soil already worked beneath it,
and it merely has to penetrate soft mould? or when it has to force its
way through unbroken soil into the solid ground?
Soc. Clearly it will shoot through soil which has been worked more
quickly than through unworked soil.
Isch. Well then, a bed of earth must be laid beneath the plant?
Soc. I quite agree; so let it be.
Isch. And how do you expect your cutting to root best?--if set straight
up from end to end, pointing to the sky? [12] or if you set it slantwise
under its earthy covering, so as to lie like an inverted gamma? [13]
[12] Lit. "if you set the whole cutting straight up, facing
heavenwards."
[13] i.e. Anglice, "like the letter {G} upon its back" {an inverted
"upper-case" gamma looks like an L}. See Lord Bacon, "Nat. Hist."
Cent. v. 426: "When you would have many new roots of fruit-trees,
take a low tree and bow it and lay all his branches aflat upon the
ground and cast earth upon them; and every twig will take root.
And this is a very profitable experiment for costly trees (for the
boughs will make stock without charge), such as are apricots,
peaches, almonds, cornelians, mulberries, figs, etc. The like is
continually practised with vines, roses, musk roses, etc."
Soc. Like an inverted gamma, to be sure, for so the plant must needs
have more eyes under ground. Now it is from these same eyes of theirs,
if I may trust my own, [14] that plants put forth their shoots above
ground. I imagine, therefore, the eyes still underground will do the
same precisely, and with so many buds all springing under earth, the
plant itself, I argue, as a whole will sprout and shoot and push its way
with speed and vigour.
[14] Lit. "it is from their eyes, I see, that plants..."
Isch. I may tell you that on these points, too, your judgment tallies
with my own. But now, should you content yourself with merely heaping up
the earth, or will you press it firmly round your plant?
Soc. I should certainly press down the earth; for if the earth is not
pressed down, I know full well that at one time under the influence of
rain the unpressed soil will turn to clay or mud; at another, under the
influence of the sun, it will turn to sand or dust to the very bottom:
so that the poor plant runs a risk of being first rotted with moisture
by the rain, and next of being shrivelled up with drought through
overheating of the roots. [15]
[15] Through "there being too much bottom heat." Holden (ed. 1886).
Isch. So far as the planting of vines is concerned, it appears,
Socrates, that you and I again hold views precisely similar.
And does this method of planting apply also to the fig-tree? (I
inquired).
Isch. Surely, and not to the fig-tree alone, but to all the rest of
fruit-trees. [16] What reason indeed would there be for rejecting in the
case of other plant-growths [17] what is found to answer so well with
the vine?
[16] {akrodrua} = "edible fruits" in Xenophon's time. See Plat.
"Criti." 115 B; Dem. "c. Nicostr." 1251; Aristot. "Hist. An."
viii. 28. 8, {out akrodrua out opora khronios}; Theophr. "H. Pl."
iv. 4. 11. (At a later period, see "Geopon." x. 74, = "fruits
having a hard rind or shell," e.g. nuts, acorns, as opposed to
pears, apples, grapes, etc., {opora}.) See further the interesting
regulations in Plat. "Laws," 844 D, 845 C.
[17] Lit. "planting in general."
Soc. How shall we plant the olive, pray, Ischomachus?
Isch. I see your purpose. You ask that question with a view to put me
to the test, [18] when you know the answer yourself as well as possible.
You can see with your own eyes [19] that the olive has a deeper trench
dug, planted as it is so commonly by the side of roads. You can see that
all the young plants in the nursery adhere to stumps. [20] And lastly,
you can see that a lump of clay is placed on the head of every plant,
[21] and the portion of the plant above the soil is protected by a
wrapping. [22]
[18] Plat. "Prot." 311 B, 349 C; "Theaet." 157 C: "I cannot make out
whether you are giving your own opinion, or only wanting to draw
me out" (Jowett).
[19] For the advantage, see "Geopon." iii. 11. 2.
[20] Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 30--
quin et caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu, truditur e sicco radix
oleagina ligno.
The stock in slices cut, and forth shall shoot, O passing strange! from
each dry slice a root (Holden).
See John Martyn ad loc.: "La Cerda says, that what the Poet here speaks
of was practised in Spain in his time. They take the trunk of an olive,
says he, deprive it of its root and branches, and cut it into several
pieces, which they put into the ground, whence a root and, soon
afterwards, a tree is formed." This mode of propagating by dry pieces
of the trunk (with bark on) is not to be confounded with that of
"truncheons" mentioned in "Georg." ii. 63.
[21] See Theophr. "H. Pl." ii. 2, 4; "de Caus." iii. 5. 1; "Geopon."
ix. 11. 4, ap. Hold.; Col. v. 9. 1; xi. 2. 42.
[22] Or, "covered up for protection."
Soc. Yes, all these things I see.
Isch. Granted, you see: what is there in the matter that you do not
understand? Perhaps you are ignorant how you are to lay the potsherd on
the clay at top?
Soc. No, in very sooth, not ignorant of that Ischomachus, or anything
you mentioned. That is just the puzzle, and again I beat my brains to
discover why, when you put to me that question a while back: "Had I, in
brief, the knowledge how to plant?" I answered, "No." Till then it never
would have struck me that I could say at all how planting must be done.
But no sooner do you begin to question me on each particular point
than I can answer you; and what is more, my answers are, you tell me,
accordant with the views of an authority [23] at once so skilful and so
celebrated as yourself. Really, Ischomachus, I am disposed to ask: "Does
teaching consist in putting questions?" [24] Indeed, the secret of your
system has just this instant dawned upon me. I seem to see the principle
in which you put your questions. You lead me through the field of my own
knowledge, [25] and then by pointing out analogies [26] to what I
know, persuade me that I really know some things which hitherto, as I
believed, I had no knowledge of.
[23] Or, "whose skill in farming is proverbial."
[24] Lit. "Is questioning after all a kind of teaching?" See Plat.
"Meno"; "Mem." IV. vi. 15.
[25] It appears, then, that the Xenophontean Socrates has {episteme}
of a sort.
[26] Or, "a series of resemblances," "close parallels," reading
{epideiknus}: or if with Breit. {apodeiknus}, transl. "by proving
such or such a thing is like some other thing known to me
already."
Isch. Do you suppose if I began to question you concerning money and its
quality, [27] I could possibly persuade you that you know the method to
distinguish good from false coin? Or could I, by a string of questions
about flute-players, painters, and the like, induce you to believe that
you yourself know how to play the flute, or paint, and so forth?
[27] Lit. "whether it is good or not."
Soc. Perhaps you might; for have you not persuaded me I am possessed of
perfect knowledge of this art of husbandry, [28] albeit I know that no
one ever taught this art to me?
[28] Or, "since you actually succeeded in persuading me I was
scientifically versed in," etc. See Plat. "Statesm." 301 B;
"Theaet." 208 E; Aristot. "An. Post." i. 6. 4; "Categ." 8. 41.
Isch. Ah! that is not the explanation, Socrates. The truth is what
I told you long ago and kept on telling you. Husbandry is an art so
gentle, so humane, that mistress-like she makes all those who look on
her or listen to her voice intelligent [29] of herself at once. Many
a lesson does she herself impart how best to try conclusions with her.
[30] See, for instance, how the vine, making a ladder of the nearest
tree whereon to climb, informs us that it needs support. [31] Anon it
spreads its leaves when, as it seems to say, "My grapes are young, my
clusters tender," and so teaches us, during that season, to screen and
shade the parts exposed to the sun's rays; but when the appointed moment
comes, when now it is time for the swelling clusters to be sweetened
by the sun, behold, it drops a leaf and then a leaf, so teaching us to
strip it bare itself and let the vintage ripen. With plenty teeming, see
the fertile mother shows her mellow clusters, and the while is nursing
a new brood in primal crudeness. [32] So the vine plant teaches us how
best to gather in the vintage, even as men gather figs, the juiciest
first. [33]
[29] Or, "gives them at once a perfect knowledge of herself."
[30] Lit. "best to deal with her," "make use of her."
[31] Lit. "teaches us to prop it."
[32] Lit. "yet immature."
[33] Or, "first one and then another as it swells." Cf. Shakespeare:
The mellow plum doth fall, the green sticks fast, Or being early pluck'd
is sour to taste ("V. and A." 527).
XX
At this point in the conversation I remarked: Tell me, Ischomachus,
if the details of the art of husbandry are thus easy to learn, and all
alike know what needs to be done, how does it happen that all farmers
do not fare like, but some live in affluence owning more than they
can possibly enjoy, while others of them fail to obtain the barest
necessities and actually run into debt?
I will tell you, Socrates (Ischomachus replied). It is neither knowledge
nor lack of knowledge in these husbandmen which causes some to be well
off, while others are in difficulties; nor will you ever hear such tales
afloat as that this or that estate has gone to ruin because the sower
failed to sow evenly, or that the planter failed to plant straight rows
of plants, or that such an one, [1] being ignorant what soil was best
suited to bear vines, had set his plants in sterile ground, or that
another [2] was in ignorance that fallow must be broken up for purposes
of sowing, or that a third [3] was not aware that it is good to mix
manure in with the soil. No, you are much more likely to hear said of
So-and-so: No wonder the man gets in no wheat from his farm, when he
takes no pains to have it sown or properly manured. Or of some other
that he grows no wine: Of course not, when he takes no pains either to
plant new vines or to make those he has bear fruit. A third has neither
figs nor olives; and again the self-same reason: He too is careless, and
takes no steps whatever to succeed in growing either one or other. These
are the distinctions which make all the difference to prosperity in
farming, far more than the reputed discovery of any clever agricultural
method or machine. [4]
[1] "Squire This."
[2] "Squire That."
[3] "Squire T'other."
[4] There is something amiss with the text at this point. For
emendations see Breit., Schenkl, Holden, Hartman.
You will find the principle applies elsewhere. There are points of
strategic conduct in which generals differ from each other for the
better or the worse, not because they differ in respect of wit or
judgment, but of carefulness undoubtedly. I speak of things within the
cognisance of every general, and indeed of almost every private soldier,
which some commanders are careful to perform and others not. Who does
not know, for instance, that in marching through a hostile territory
an army ought to march in the order best adapted to deliver battle with
effect should need arise? [5]--a golden rule which, punctually obeyed
by some, is disobeyed by others. Again, as all the world knows, it is
better to place day and night pickets [6] in front of an encampment. Yet
even that is a procedure which, carefully observed at times, is at times
as carelessly neglected. Once more: not one man in ten thousand, [7]
I suppose, but knows that when a force is marching through a narrow
defile, the safer method is to occupy beforehand certain points of
vantage. [8] Yet this precaution also has been known to be neglected.
[5] See Thuc. ii. 81: "The Hellenic troops maintained order on the
march and kept a look-out until..."--Jowett.
[6] See "Cyrop." I. vi. 43.
[7] Lit. "it would be hard to find the man who did not know."
[8] Or, "to seize advantageous positions in advance." Cf. "Hiero," x.
5.
Similarly, every one will tell you that manure is the best thing in
the world for agriculture, and every one can see how naturally it is
produced. Still, though the method of production is accurately known,
though there is every facility to get it in abundance, the fact remains
that, while one man takes pains to have manure collected, another is
entirely neglectful. And yet God sends us rain from heaven, and every
hollow place becomes a standing pool, while earth supplies materials of
every kind; the sower, too, about to sow must cleanse the soil, and what
he takes as refuse from it needs only to be thrown into water and time
itself will do the rest, shaping all to gladden earth. [9] For matter
in every shape, nay earth itself, [10] in stagnant water turns to fine
manure.
[9] Lit. "Time itself will make that wherein Earth rejoices."
[10] i.e. "each fallen leaf, each sprig or spray of undergrowth, the
very weeds, each clod." Lit. "what kind of material, what kind of
soil does not become manure when thrown into stagnant water?"
So, again, as touching the various ways in which the earth itself needs
treatment, either as being too moist for sowing, or too salt [11] for
planting, these and the processes of cure are known to all men: how
in one case the superfluous water is drawn off by trenches, and in the
other the salt corrected by being mixed with various non-salt bodies, moist or dry. Yet here again, in spite of knowledge, some are careful of these matters, others negligent. |
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