Studies in Judaism 8

Studies in Judaism 8

This peculiar doctrine of the Intermediary soon became the distinguishing

feature of Chassidism. By a Chassid was understood not a man who held such

and such opinions in theology and religion, but a believer in the Zaddik,

and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of the Zaddik.

Every other doctrine of Chassidism was rapidly pushed into the background

and overlooked. Even the grand and fundamental doctrine of Omnipresence in

the Creation was veiled by the special presence in the Zaddik. Chassidism

became mere Zaddikism, and its subsequent history is identical with the

downward development of that cult.

 

Whether Baalshem named his successor is doubtful. But the lead after his

death was assumed by his disciple Beer of Mizriez. This man's conversion

to Chassidism was an important event for the new community; his piety and

learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during Baalshem's life

Chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of

society, Beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned among

his contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples of Beer that

the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due. They came together from many

quarters, and after Beer's death separated and preached the new doctrine

far and wide. Many even went forth during the lifetime of their master,

and at his command, to found fresh branches of the new sect. Like Beer

himself, they directed their efforts mainly to winning over the educated

sections of the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to their word, but

the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies, which had sharpened

their wits and starved their souls, lent a ready ear and an eager heart to

the new doctrine. The uneducated were by no means excluded; to them

Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and a grander hope than the

current Rabbinism of the age; they therefore joined the young community in

large numbers without any special effort being necessary to gain them

over.

 

In their methods of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously differed from

the older communities. Laying as they did supreme stress on the importance

and efficacy of prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the

existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves. The usual

salaried Reader "with the beautiful voice and empty head," who naturally

regarded his function as a matter of business, was done away with and his

place taken either by the Zaddik himself or by some other distinguished

person in the community. The Chassidim also effected many changes in the

liturgy. Instead of the German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They

excised many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity, were

cumbrous in form or objectionable in matter. They inserted new prayers and

hymns of their own. They paid little regard to the prescribed hours at

which public worship should be held. Prayer began when they had got

themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind. Frequent ablutions,

perusal of mystical writings, introspective meditation were the means by

which they sought to gain the befitting mood. The prayers themselves were

accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement. Some in the

zeal of their devotion began to dance; others were rapt in a motionless

ecstasy; some prayed aloud; others in solemn silence. They justified their

abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that you cannot order a

child when to speak with its father: such restraint were fit only for

slaves.

 

As a rule the larger number of the younger Chassidim were able to devote

their whole time to religious exercises. It was the custom among the Jews

in Eastern Europe for the young men to live at the expense of their own or

their wives' parents, in order that they might give themselves up entirely

to religious study. According to the old notions, this meant the study of

the Talmud and its Commentaries; the Chassidim who cared little for the

legal side of Jewish literature betook themselves to the literature of

edification and mysticism. No small part of their time was taken up with

endless conversations about the Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self-

sacrifice and the wonderful miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was

living in his own town, the youthful Chassid spent as many hours as he

could in the Zaddik's company, in order to observe and study this embodied

Torah as constantly as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical

pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and endless were the

tales which were afterwards repeated, to those who were obliged to stay at

home, of the Zaddik's marvellous wisdom and extraordinary deeds. The last

hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a special season of grace,

and the Chassidim were therefore in the habit of collecting together in

the waning of the Sabbath and celebrating the so-called "Supper of the

Holy Queen." The meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well

as by hymns and prayers.

 

The Chassidim were second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection

for each other. No sacrifice for a brother Chassid was too great. They

knew no difference of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for

they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal, the Zaddik, who in

his exalted position was equally raised above them all. Before him all

minor differences of rank disappeared. When a Chassid travelled, he had no

scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment in the house of any Chassid

who could afford to give them. If he was in money difficulties the purse

of his host was at his disposal. If that was not sufficient, it was

supplemented by a grant from the fund of the community. These gifts were

not looked upon in the light of charity either by giver or receiver; they

were made to the Zaddik, to whom all Chassidim alike were debtors. It

sometimes even happened that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich

merchant was to marry the daughter of a poor schoolmaster, and both

parties were equally delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief.

 

It may easily be imagined that the innovations of the Chassidim provoked

the wrath of the orthodox communities. But in their detestation of the

Rabbis the Chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they

received. The Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah and

Abiram. Where the Chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand,

the Rabbi was deposed and a Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his

place. The issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the

Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places the Chassidim were

excommunicated, in others their leaders were publicly scourged and put

into the stocks. Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly

closed. But persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the

popularity and the numbers of the sect. The devotion of the Chassidim to

each other and to their common cause was increased a hundred-fold by

suffering. In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of treason,

before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into prison. In Russia,

however, the power of money is considerable, and on payment of a large

ransom not only was the beloved Zaddik released but as an obvious

consequence his reputation greatly profited: the day of his release was

celebrated as a yearly festival, while his sufferings were regarded by his

followers as a sin-offering that atoned for the iniquities of his age.

From this time the government maintained a purely neutral attitude towards

the new sect, and ere long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.

 

The cessation of persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact

that Chassidism as a secession soon ceased to be formidable. There were

early divisions within the sect. Even Beer's disciples began to quarrel

over theological differences and to found separate communities. When once

the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun, it was the

interest of the false Zaddikim to accentuate these differences. Each

Zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself, from which to draw

an undivided revenue. And each deluded little sect as it arose boasted of

the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.

 

It must not be supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of

Zaddikim. The greater number of Baalshem's leading disciples as well as

Beer's were beyond question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have

rejected with scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession.

Their motives and their zeal were alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid

posts as Rabbis when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to Palestine

to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to become religious

specialists, following out practically, although with some exaggeration, a

favourite doctrine of the Founder, that he who observes but one

commandment devotedly and lovingly, may reach the goal desired: the union

with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his business never to tell the smallest

falsehood, whatever the cost or the inconvenience of truth might be. It is

related that the Russian Government, suspecting the Jews of his town of

smuggling, consented to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren

innocent. Having no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his

brethren or to tell an untruth, he prayed to God to save him from this

dilemma by sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came to

fetch him before the law court they found him dead. Another, thinking that

the commandment in Exodus xxiii. 3, relating to the help that should be

given to a neighbour or enemy when "his ass is lying under its burden,"

was practically unobserved, devoted himself to its fulfilment. He was

continually to be seen in the streets, helping one man to load his waggon,

and another to drag his cart out of the mire. A third made the service of

the oppressed his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife,

having had a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the magistrate of

the town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing that her husband was about to

accompany her, she asked him whither he was bound. He replied, "to the

magistrate." His wife declared that it was below his dignity to take any

part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal with the matter herself.

The Zaddik replied, "That may be, but I intend to represent your maid, who

when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her part." And

then, bursting into a passion of tears, he quoted Job xxxi. 13: "If I did

despise the cause of my man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they

contended with me, what shall I do when God riseth up?"

 

Several Zaddikim were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind. The

works of Solomon Ladier or of Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and

without Western preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both

originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic of all is the

passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the Divine. The

reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and ardour of

their longing after God. But, despite the adherence of these worthy men,

the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force, was sealed from the day

when Zaddikism replaced the original doctrines of the sect.

 

For, apart from the obvious theological considerations already suggested,

there are two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the Zaddik which

naturally doomed it to perversion and failure. The necessary

qualifications for "Zaddikship" are wholly undefined. We hear a great deal

about what a Zaddik actually is, but we hear very little about what he

should be. The Zaddik has many virtues, but we are nowhere told what are

his indispensable qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being who can

be comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel, or as God

Himself. He is realised by faith, not conceived by thought. Hence there is no human test of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that test.