The Mentor Julius Caesar 1

The Mentor Julius Caesar 1

The Mentor Julius Caesar, Vol. 6, Num. 2, Serial No. 150, March 1, 1918

 

Author: George Willis Botsford

 

The Real Julius Cæsar

In person Cæsar was tall and slight. His features were more refined

than was usual in Roman faces; the forehead was wide and high, the nose

large and thin, the lips full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle’s, the

neck extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale. His hair was

short and naturally scanty, falling off toward the end of his life and

leaving him partially bald. His voice, especially when he spoke in

public, was high and shrill.

 

* * * * *

 

His health was uniformly strong until his last year, when he became

subject to epileptic fits. He was scrupulously clean in all his habits,

abstemious in his food, rarely or never touching wine, and noting

sobriety as the highest of qualities when describing any new people.

He was an athlete in early life, admirable in all manly exercises,

and especially in riding. From his boyhood it was observed of him

that he was the truest of friends, that he avoided quarrels, and

was most easily appeased when offended. In manner he was quiet and

gentlemanlike, with the natural courtesy of high-breeding.

 

* * * * *

 

He was singularly careful of his soldiers. He allowed his legions

rest, though he allowed none to himself. He rarely fought a battle at

a disadvantage. He never exposed his men to unnecessary danger, and

the loss by wear and tear in the campaigns in Gaul was exceptionally

and even astonishingly slight. When a gallant action was performed, he

knew by whom it had been done, and every soldier, however humble, might

feel assured that if he deserved praise he would have it. The army was

Cæsar’s family.

 

JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE

 

 

 

 

[Illustration: IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES

 

JULIUS CÆSAR]

 

 

 

 

_JULIUS CÆSAR_

 

_The Career of Cæsar_

 

ONE

 

 

Gaius Julius Cæsar was born in 100 B. C. of old patrician stock. In

youth he received from Greek masters the elements of their culture,

including astronomy, philosophy, and rhetoric. To complete his

oratorical studies he sailed for Rhodes, but on the way was taken

captive by pirates and held for ransom. This mishap would have

subjected him to ridicule, had he not, on his release, manned a ship

and punished his captors. Returning to Rome, he entered politics, the

most ambitious career open to fashionable young men. In this vocation

he had to pay his respects to men of influence, plead cases at court,

and render financial or other assistance to unfortunate clients; he had

to call by name and compliment all whom he met, to entertain lavishly,

and attend the various social functions of all classes. Above all he

had to maintain a permanent coterie of supporters to act as agents in

time of need.

 

In 68 B. C. he reached the lowest rung in the political ladder. This

was the office of quæstor, who had the handling of public funds.

Soon afterward as ædile, commissioner of public works and games, his

magnificent entertainments won the good will of the voters, and brought

about his election to the Supreme Pontificate. In this capacity he

directed the state religion, and his person was esteemed sacred. It was

a great political advantage. Next he was elected prætor, whose chief

duty was to preside over one of the criminal courts. After a man had

held the prætorship or the consulship the Senate usually appointed

him as a proprætor or proconsul to the government of a province. As

proprætor accordingly Cæsar governed Spain in 61-60. Returning home

in the latter year, he formed a political ring, known as the First

Triumvirate, with Pompey, a general who had gained splendid victories

in the Orient, and Crassus, the wealthiest capitalist of the empire.

This combination secured the consulship for Cæsar for the year 59. His

opposition to the Senate during this year, and his legislation in the

interest of the people made him very popular. As proconsul (58-50) he

conquered Gaul. Meanwhile Crassus was killed in battle; and Pompey,

adopting the cause of the Senate, prepared nominally to defend the

Republic; in fact, to rid himself of a powerful rival. In the civil war

that followed the seasoned veterans of the popular hero proved superior

to the forces of the Senate, most of them hastily gathered from the

farms. Thereupon the Senate, shifting about, heaped honors and triumphs

upon the victor. As consul, dictator, and supreme pontiff Cæsar was

virtually, though not in name, a king (49-44). The power of the

aristocracy was broken, but its hatred lived and generated a plot to

kill the “enemy of the Republic.” On March 15, 44, Cæsar fell, stabbed

with twenty-three wounds, at the hands of erstwhile friends.

 

Cæsar began his career as a politician, but ended it as a statesman.

His courage, clemency, and personal charm won countless friends. While

costly entertainments were a political necessity, his moderation in

private life earned the respect of Roman society. A blue-blooded

patrician, he steadfastly championed the popular cause. This policy

alienated his own class, and finally resulted in his death. His

political understanding developed hand in hand with his patriotism.

Better than his contemporaries, he saw the economic and social decay

of the Republic, and felt that inefficiency and corruption could be

eradicated in no other way than by a strong monarchy. His own supremacy

he brought about with the minimum of bloodshed. When once in power he

vigorously swept away the weaknesses and oppression of aristocratic

rule, and laid a solid foundation for the future peace and prosperity

of the empire.

 

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION

ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150

COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

 

 

 

 

[Illustration: THE RIVER TIBER--IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR]

 

 

 

 

_JULIUS CÆSAR_

 

_The Roman Empire_

 

TWO

 

 

Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance (400-44 B. C.)

the Roman empire came to embrace the entire Mediterranean region.

After Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the Atlantic to the

Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the Sahara. This vast area

was organized into administrative divisions, called provinces. Its very

size meant a heterogeneous population, scores of peoples, each with its

own language and customs. In the east Greek had replaced local tongues

for literary, diplomatic, and business purposes. In the west many

dialects remained: for Latin, though official, was but gradually coming

into universal use.

 

Life in the empire was mainly agricultural. Tools were simple, if not

primitive; and only after a struggle could the peasant produce enough

to last until the next harvest. Industries were largely domestic,

carried on at home, or in small shops for local use. The eastern

parts--Egypt, Asia Minor, and western Asia--were far wealthier. Here

commerce and skilled industries were more flourishing, though by any

modern estimate, on a small scale. As there were no machines in the

modern sense, goods had to be made by hand. The imperial roads were

in excellent condition but distances were long, travel was slow, and

transportation expensive, save by water.

 

When a new territory was incorporated into the empire, it became

a province. It was placed in charge of a quæstor, who controlled

financial matters, and a general executive called proprætor or

proconsul--both appointed annually by the imperial government. The

governor commanded the army and acted as the highest judge in his

territory. The province was divided into city-states, each of which

retained its laws and customs, its magistrates, council, and popular

assembly. They managed their local affairs, and no attempt was made

to interfere in their religion. Instead of rendering military service

they had to pay annual tribute. At auction the highest bidders received

contracts for collecting taxes in the several cities.

 

Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial rule. In the first place,

Rome favored her citizens at the expense of her subjects. Native

merchants were superseded by greedy speculators and traders, who,

reducing the people to poverty, drove the peasants from their farms and

built up vast estates of their own. The evil of “farming” taxes became

intolerable, for avaricious contractors made the peasants pay far more

than their due. In his year of service, too, the typical governor

expected to accumulate a fortune sufficient (1) to pay political debts,

(2) to bribe judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live in luxury the

remainder of his life. Few governors were honest enough to check these

wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier provinces were heavily overtaxed

to help pay the expense of governing the newly acquired frontier

provinces, which as a rule were financial failures.

 

These evils Cæsar went far in remedying. He curtailed the system

of “farming” taxes, and placed it under strict supervision. Thus

capitalists were prevented from openly plundering the subjects. He

appointed able, honest governors, and held them to account. Legionary

commanders, too, appointed by him to serve under the governor, and

revenue officials--his own servants and freedmen--saw that his will

was everywhere enforced. The provinces, especially the poorer ones,

were to be cultivated and improved. An attempt was made to equalize the

burden of taxation, and the heavy drain on the eastern provinces was

lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class and national distinctions,

and to weld together the empire, Cæsar allowed himself to be worshipped

as a god, and adopted the policy of rapidly granting citizenship

to provincials. In aiming to bring about such an empire devoid of

nationality Cæsar followed the procedure of the great Alexander, and