Greece, by J.A. McClymont
Author’s
Note
Among the authorities consulted by the writer of the Text (who
has had the advantage of a recent visit to Greece) special acknowledgments
are due to Grote’s monumental _History of Greece_, and to J. G.
Frazer’s lucid and searching Commentary on _Pausanias’s Description of
Greece_.
ABERDEEN, _April
1906_.
Contents
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY
1
CHAPTER I
THE IONIAN ISLANDS AND THE
“ODYSSEY” 7
CHAPTER II
DELPHI
AND ITS ORACLE 18
CHAPTER
III
OLYMPIA AND ITS GAMES
34
CHAPTER IV
ARCADIA AND ITS
ABORIGINES 51
CHAPTER
V
SPARTA AND ITS DISCIPLINE
71
CHAPTER VI
ARGOLIS AND ITS
ANTIQUITIES 94
CHAPTER
VII
CORINTH AND ITS
CANAL 111
CHAPTER
VIII
ATHENS AND ITS ACROPOLIS
124
CHAPTER IX
ATHENS AND ITS
GODDESS 146
CHAPTER
X
ATHENS AND ELEUSIS
167
CHAPTER XI
ATHENS AND ITS
DEMOCRACY 183
CHAPTER
XII
ATHENS--ITS DECAY AND ITS
REVIVAL 206
INDEX 229
List
of Illustrations
1. The Parthenon from the
Propylæa
_Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
2. The Acropolis from the Site of the Temple of Olympian
Zeus 2
3. Corfu. The Old Fort from the
West 8
4. Corfu. The Old Fort from the
South 10
5. The Temple of Athena at
Sunium 14
6. Sunset from the
North-Eastern Corner of the Acropolis 16
7. Delphi from
Itea 20
8. Delphi. The
Castalian Gorge and Spring 24
9. Delphi. The
Portico of the Athenians 28
10. The Ancient
Quarries on Mount Pentelikon 32
11. Olympia. The
base of the Kronos Hill with the remains of the Temple of Hera and the
Philippeion 36
12. Olympia. The Palæstra and
remains of the Temple of Zeus 40
13. The Temple of Hera at
Olympia 44
14. The Bastion and Temple
of Wingless Victory viewed from the ascent to the
Propylæa 48
15. Colossal Head of
Despoina 52
16. The Temple of
Apollo at Bassæ in Arcadia, with distant view of Mount
Ithome 54
17. Site of
Megalopolis in Arcadia 58
18.
Megalopolis in Arcadia 62
19.
Andritsæna. The resting-place for the Temple of Apollo at
Bassæ 66
20.
The Castle of Karytæna in Arcadia 70
21.
Interior of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ in Arcadia 72
22.
The Laconian Gate of Messene 74
23.
Kalamata on the Gulf of Messene 76
24.
Mount Ithome from the Stadion of Messene 80
25.
Triple Bridge over the Mavrozoumenos River 84
26.
Sparta and Mount Taygetus 86
27.
Mistra, near Sparta 90
28.
Mistra and the Valley of the Eurotas 92
29.
Argos and Larissa 96
30.
The Acropolis of Mycenæ from South-West, with Mount Elias 100
31.
Mycenæ, showing the site of the famous discoveries of
Schliemann 104
32.
Tiryns. The Gate of the Upper Castle 106
33.
Nauplia and Tiryns from the Road to Argos 108
34.
The Theatre of Epidaurus 110
35.
The Temple at Corinth 114
36.
The Temple of Athena at Sunium from the North 118
37.
Off Cape Matapan 122
38.
The Western End of the Acropolis seen from below the Pnyx 124
39.
The Temple of Theseus from the South-West 128
40.
The Temple of Theseus from the North-West 130
41.
The Areopagus and the Theseum 132
42.
The Battle-Field of Marathon from Mount Pentelikon 136
43.
The Seaward End of the Plain of Attica looking towards Salamis 140
44.
The Temple of Athena on the Island of Ægina 144
45.
Vista of the Northern Peristyle of the Parthenon
looking westward
146
46. The Western Portico of the Parthenon from the
South 148
47. The Acropolis and the Temple of Olympian Zeus
from the Hill
Ardettos 150
48. The
Parthenon from the Northern End of the Eastern Portico of the
Propylæa 152
49. Mount
Pentelikon and Lycabettos from the North-Eastern Angle of the
Parthenon 154
50. The
Propylæa from the Northern Edge of the Platform of the
Parthenon 156
51. The
Southern side of the Erechtheum, with the foundations of the earlier Temple
of Athena Polias 158
52. The Caryatid
Portico of the Erechtheum from the West 160
53. The Northern
Portico of the Erechtheum 162
54. The Eastern
Portico of the Erechtheum viewed from the Northern Peristyle of the
Parthenon 164
55. The Dipylon at
Athens 168
56. The Street of
Tombs outside the Dipylon at Athens 172
57. Athens from
the Road to Eleusis 174
58. Convent of
Daphni 176
59. Sacred Way
from Athens to Eleusis, looking towards Salamis 178
60. The Great
Temple of the Mysteries, Eleusis 180
61. The Hall
of the Great Temple of the Mysteries, Eleusis 182
62. The
Acropolis from the base of the Philopappus Hill 184
63. The
lower part of the Auditorium of the Theatre of Dionysos at
Athens 188
64. The
Cavern Chapel on the South Side of the Acropolis 190
65. The
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 194
66. The
Pnyx; or Place of Assembly of the People 198
67. The
Acropolis with Kallirrhoe in the Foreground 202
68.
Athens. The Monument of Agrippa and the Pinacotheca 206
69.
The Tower of the Winds 208
70.
The Portico of Athena Archegetis 210
71.
The Stoa of Hadrian 212
72.
The Arch of Hadrian 216
73.
Columns of the Temple of Olympian Zeus from the North-West 220
74.
The Square in front of the King’s Palace at Athens 222
75.
The Stadion at
Athens 226
_Sketch Map at end
of Volume._
_The Illustrations in this Volume have been engraved and
printed in England by The Hentschel Colourtype,
Limited._
GREECE
INTRODUCTORY
More
perhaps than any other country in Europe, Greece owes its charm to the
traditions of a remote past. It has no lack of fine scenery, and there is
much that is interesting in its modern life; but what chiefly distinguishes
it from other countries is the rich and beautiful mythology which is
reflected in its poetry, its art, and its philosophy, and was to a large
extent the inspiration of its glorious history.
It will not be expected
that any attempt should be made in these pages to give an adequate account of
the artistic and architectural creations which, even in their ruins, form the
chief attraction of the country. For detailed information on these matters,
the reader must be left to consult such guide-books as Baedeker and Murray,
or works specially devoted to archæology or art. The object of the present
writer will be attained if he succeed in providing a congenial intellectual
atmosphere for the scenes and objects to be presented by the artist. For
this purpose it will be necessary, among other things, to recall many of
the ancient legends, as well as the historical events associated with
the places referred to. The history cannot be understood apart from
the mythology, for the latter is a key to the religious faith as well as
to the patriotic sentiment of the nation.
Opinions may differ as to
the right interpretation of many of the myths, but whatever explanation we
may be disposed to give of them, whether we regard them as allegorical,
semi-historical, or purely poetical, they are generally full of human
interest, and they were very dear to the Greeks as the embodiment of their
earliest thoughts and cherished memories. Embalmed in their poetry,
consecrated by their temples, and signalised by many other monuments, the
Greek mythology formed for centuries the chief intellectual wealth of the
nation. Even when history and philosophy had begun to make their influence
felt, the old stories, dramatised by the tragic poets, still continued to
fill the imagination and to occupy the attention of all classes of the
people. Though Plato had a good deal to say against some of them from an
ethical point of view, he did not propose in his ideal Republic to do away
with them altogether, he only wished them to be so corrected and purified as
to promote the interests of a sound morality and a reasonable
theology.
An important feature of Greek mythology was its close
connection with the received genealogies. These nearly always terminated, at
the upper end, in a god or a hero, after whom a family or a group of families
was named, with the curious result, to our modern
[Illustration: THE
ACROPOLIS FROM THE SITE OF THE TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS
The two
detached colossal columns belong to the west end of the southern peristyle of
the Temple. To the right is the Arch of Hadrian. The striking form of the
masses of rock, which constitute the natural defence of the Acropolis on its
eastern side, shows with great effect in this drawing.]
mind, that the
shorter the pedigree the more honour it conferred upon its living
representative. The public genealogies were thus an incentive both to the
piety and the pride of the more influential classes, and they help to account
for the reverence in which the ancient mythology was so long held by such an
enlightened nation as the Greeks.
With the exception of Palestine, there
is probably no country that can compare with Greece for the influence it has
exerted on the life and thought of the world, in proportion to its size and
population. In area it was never so large as Scotland, and its population,
which is now under two millions and a half, was probably never much
greater.
How far the influence of ancient Greece was due to the
racial characteristics of its inhabitants, which they brought with them
from other parts of the world, and how far to the peculiarities of
the country itself, is a question which it is not easy to determine. To
some extent, no doubt, both causes operated. The inhabitants belonged to
a good stock, the Indo-Germanic, while their geographical position
and surroundings were well fitted to develop a high type of manhood.
The beauty of the scenery, the purity of the atmosphere, the geniality
of the climate, the fertility of the plains and valleys, the grandeur
of the mountains,--more numerous and widespread than in any other part
of Europe of similar extent except Montenegro,--the bracing influence
of the sea, and the commercial advantages afforded by its coasts, which
are more extensive than those of any other country in proportion to
its size, looking in the direction of Europe, Asia, and Africa--all
these things no doubt helped to make the ancient Greeks the great nation
that they were, though their comparative obscurity in modern times shows
that something more is needed to produce a similar effect.
If we would
form an adequate conception of the nation’s influence, we must take into
account the numerous Greek colonies which were planted in Asia Minor and on
the southern shore of the Black Sea, on the coast of Macedonia, along the
Hellespont and Bosporus, and also in Sicily and Italy, where a new Greek
world sprang up, which received the name of _Magna Græcia_. Hundreds of years
before Athens reached the height of its glory, there was a Greek city in
Italy, Cumæ (founded by colonists from Chalcis and Cymæ in Asia Minor), which
held the first place in the peninsula for wealth and civilisation; while
another Greek settlement was to be found as far west as Marseilles, which had
been colonised from Phocæa in Asia Minor about 600 B.C.
The
inhabitants of Greece in this wider sense not only spoke the same language
(whose preservation was largely due to the influence of Homer), but were also
bound together by fellowship in blood, in religion, and in manners. They were
hardly more distinguishable from the rude and ignorant tribes of Europe than
from the more civilised Orientals who practised human sacrifice, polygamy,
and the mutilation of enemies. But perhaps the most marked characteristic of
the Greeks was their love of local autonomy, and their rooted aversion to
anything like imperial rule, such as prevailed so widely in Asia. Their
attachment to an individual city, as the capital of a small district, was
doubtless due in great measure to the divided nature of the country, which is
broken up by mountains and rivers and arms of the sea into numberless
plains and valleys only a few miles in extent. While this had the effect
of fostering a spirit of independence, combined with a sense of
civic obligation, which helped to develop the energies and capacities of
the individual, the proximity to each other of so many rival states bred
a great amount of jealousy and strife, which frequently led to bloody
and destructive wars. Such disintegrating tendencies were too much even
for the consolidating force of a common language and literature, or
of voluntary confederations for the purpose of worship or
amusement. Occasionally a great national emergency, such as the Persian
invasion, might force the Greeks to join together for the resistance of a
common foe, but it was almost inevitable that sooner or later they should
fall into the hands of a great military power, such as Macedonia, and
lose the civic liberties of which they were so proud. The political decay
of Greece, however, only widened the scope of its influence. As
the dissolution of the Jewish polity was followed by the rapid spread of
a religion which had its roots in the Jewish Scriptures, so the
national degradation of the Greeks led to a still wider diffusion of
their language, their literature, and their
civilisation.
CHAPTER I
THE IONIAN ISLANDS AND THE
“ODYSSEY”
The first place in Greece on which a traveller from the
West usually sets foot is Corfu, one of the Ionian Islands, which were given
up by Great Britain in 1864 to gratify the patriotic aspirations of
the Greeks. The sacrifice was not without its compensations, as it
relieved Britain from an annual outlay of £100,000, which had been the cost
of administration.
The principal Ionian Islands are five in number,
namely, Corfu (Corcyra), Santa Mauro (Leucas), Ithaca, Cephalonia
(Cephallenia), and Zante (Zacynthus). They represent a territory of more than
1000 square miles, with a population of about a quarter of a million, who are
mainly dependent on shipping and on the trade in oil, wine, and
currants.
A romantic interest attaches to the promontory of Leucas,
which terminates in what is still known as Sappho’s Leap, in allusion to
an old tradition which tells how the famous poetess, who shares with
Alcæus the chief honours in Æolian lyric poetry, here put an end to her life
to escape from the pangs of unrequited affection. In Zacynthus we have
an illustration of the historical accuracy of Herodotus in the existence
of some curious springs on the south-west, from which the water comes
out mingled with pitch.
From an antiquarian point of view, however,
still greater interest attaches to Corcyra, Ithaca, and Cephallenia, as they
have Homeric associations which carry us back to a still earlier
period.
Corfu or Corcyra, although not the largest, is the most populous
of the whole group. It is a beautiful island, with a beautiful
situation, looking out on the blue waters of the Southern Adriatic, with the
snowy mountains of Epirus in the distance. It has two commodious harbours,
in which the shipping of many nations may be seen. The streets of the
city are narrow and old-fashioned, but it has an interesting old
fortress with a handsome esplanade. Near the harbour is the former residence
of the British High Commissioner (an office once held by Mr.
Gladstone), with beautiful public gardens in front of it. The environs of the
city are charming, with orange-groves here and there glowing in the
brilliant sunshine, amid a profusion of roses, geraniums, and other blooms
almost growing wild, with miles on miles of olive-trees in the
background.
From the earliest times the island was a place of importance
to the shipping world, as the ancients, in sailing, liked to keep near to
land, and generally put in to shore at night, unless they wished to
take advantage of some favourable breeze which did not
[Illustration:
CORFU. THE OLD FORT FROM THE WEST
To the left the Albanian
Mountains.]
rise till after sunset. In this way the island afforded
convenient shelter for those who were sailing from the Peloponnesus to Italy,
and facilitated Greek traffic with Epirus. It became the seat of
a Corinthian colony in 734 B.C., when Syracuse was also founded, but
it never showed much sympathy or affection for the mother-city. Indeed,
the first sea-battle we read of in authentic history took place between
the ships of Corinth and Corcyra (_c._ 665 B.C.), when the latter came
off victorious. Before the Peloponnesian war broke out there were
great complaints on the part of Corinth on account of due respect not
being shown to her representatives at the public festivals in
the daughter-city; and the subsequent action of the latter in
putting herself under the protection of Athens, when she became involved
in difficulties with Corinth and Epidamnus, was largely the cause of
the great war which proved so injurious to the prosperity and power
of Athens. In the course of its early history Corcyra was the scene of
some terrible conflicts and cruel slaughters, almost without a parallel
in any other part of Greece. Since that time it has passed through
many vicissitudes under Roman, Byzantine, Crusading, Venetian, French,
and British rule.
But the greatest interest of the place arises from
the tradition which identifies it with the Phæacian island _Scheria_, on
which Odysseus was cast after his stormy voyage from the island of Calypso.
No remains have been found of the palace of Alcinous, where Odysseus met with
such generous hospitality, but about two miles from the esplanade
at _Canone_ (One-Gun Battery), near the end of a promontory, we get a
view of the secluded bay or gulf (Lake of Kalikiopoulo) on which the
weary voyager is said to have been cast ashore, at the mouth of a
brook (Cressida), which falls into the lake, and where Nausicaa and
her maidens were amusing themselves after their great washing was over. At
a little distance from the shore lies the rocky islet of
Ponticonisi (“Mouse-Island”), which tradition identifies with the Phæacian
ship that was turned into stone by the wrath of Poseidon, as it was beginning
its homeward voyage to Ithaca with Odysseus on board.
All this local
tradition, however, is rejected by a recent explorer, M. Victor Berard, who
has taken enormous pains to investigate the matter. He is convinced that the
palace of Alcinous and the whole scene described by Homer in connection with
the visit of Odysseus lay on the western side of the island, near the Convent
of Palæocastrizza, and he concludes from indications in the poem that the
Phæacians had come from the ancient city of Cumæ (Hypereia), driven out by
the Œnotrians (Cyclopes). But whatever view we may take on these points there
can be little doubt that Corfu, which lay as it were on the outskirts of
the ancient Greek world, and not far from Ithaca (to which Odysseus
sailed from it in a night), is the island which Homer had in view when
he described the home of the Phæacians.
Still more interesting, from a
Homeric point of
[Illustration: CORFU. THE OLD FORT FROM THE
SOUTH]
view, is the small island of Ithaca (about 37 square miles in
extent), where the poet locates the home of his wandering hero and his
wife Penelope, the one the early Greek ideal of practical sagacity,
as Achilles is of martial impetuosity, and the other the model of
conjugal devotion, as Nausicaa is of maidenly grace. The identity of the
island has recently been called in question by an eminent
archæologist (Dorpfeld), who regards Leucas as the island referred to in
the _Odyssey_. But it would require strong evidence to overcome
the presumption in favour of the island which now bears the name of
Ithaca, and which corresponds to the poet’s description as well as we have
any right to expect, considering the want of maps and guide-books at
the time that he wrote. Perhaps its claim may yet receive
fuller confirmation as the result of excavations; but in the meantime it
is interesting to know that a terrace wall built of rough-hewn blocks
has been discovered on the west coast, in the neighbourhood of a port
to which the name Polis (City) is still applied, though there is no
modern town to justify the name.
In this connection some interest also
attaches to Cephallenia, the largest island of the group. There is a little
village on its east coast, called Samos, from which the boat sails to Ithaca,
and as an island called Same is often mentioned in the _Odyssey_ in
connection with Ithaca, and the subjects of Odysseus are sometimes
called Cephallenians, we are evidently not far from the scenes depicted by
the great poet.
It would scarcely be possible to exaggerate the
influence which the Homeric poetry has exercised on the intellect and
imagination of the Greeks, and it is impossible for any one to enter into the
spirit of Greek history and literature without some acquaintance with it.
Homer has often been called the “Bible of the Greeks,” and there is truth
in the saying both from a religious and a literary point of view.
Herodotus was mistaken when he said that Homer and Hesiod had created the
religion of the Greeks, but they certainly did much to systematise it, and,
by giving Jupiter a place of supremacy among the gods, they paved the
way for the triumph of monotheism.
In course of time Homer came to be
regarded by his countrymen as their chief authority, not only on religious
subjects but in almost all matters of interest to a thoughtful and inquiring
mind. The reading and hearing of his poetry was the chief means of education.
It was no uncommon thing for a boy to be able to recite both the _Iliad_ and
the _Odyssey_ from memory. Classical writers speak of Homer in terms
not only of admiration but of reverence. Æschylus said that he had
gathered up the crumbs from Homer’s table; and Sophocles was so much in
sympathy with the _Odyssey_ that he was spoken of as “the tragic Homer.”
There was, therefore, nothing strange in the sentiment which led Alexander
the Great to carry about with him in his eastern campaigns a copy of
Homer, said to have been edited for him by his old tutor Aristotle, and kept
in a precious Persian casket. About a third of the recently
discovered Egyptian papyri are inscribed with passages from the _Iliad_ and
the _Odyssey_.
While the oldest poetry of Greece, as of other
countries, was probably of a lyric character, called forth by the joys and
sorrows of common life or by the festive celebration of the seasons, the more
stately epic, dealing with grander themes, and chanted rather than sung,
with occasional accompaniment on the harp, found more favour with princes
and their nobles, and attracted the most gifted authors to its service,
till it reached the high stage of development which we find in the
writings of Homer. These poems may be described as the oldest literature
in existence, but they were doubtless the result of many previous
efforts of a more archaic character, traces of which may be found in the
older bards and legendary themes that are mentioned by Homer
himself.
The _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ show to what a high degree of
civilisation and culture the Hellenic race had attained not much later than
1000 B.C. In the freeness of their spirit, combined with reverence for law,
and in their vivid portraiture of the different members of the Pantheon,
seen through the medium of a rich and sympathetic humanity, the poems
present a pleasing contrast to all other heathen pictures of things human
and divine. Their language is as admirable as the thought,--so rich
and flexible, entirely free from the crudities that might have been
expected in such primitive literature. Matthew Arnold sums up
Homer’s characteristics from a literary point of view, as rapidity,
plainness of thought, plainness of style, and nobleness. These qualities give
the poet as strong a hold on the sympathies of his readers as he assigns
to the minstrel in the _Odyssey_, when he makes Eumæus say of his
old master, now returned, but still in disguise: “Even as when a man
gazes on a minstrel whom the gods have taught to sing words of yearning joy
to mortals, and they have a ceaseless desire to hear him as long as he
will sing, even so he charmed me, sitting by me in the halls.”
The
controversy which has been going on for more than a hundred years regarding
the authorship of the poems does not much affect their interest for the
general reader. Similar questions were raised more than two thousand years
ago. Even before Plato’s time there had been a sifting process by which a
number of hymns and minor poems formerly attributed to Homer (as the whole
book of Psalms used to be to David) were found to be the work of unknown
authors of a later date. A century or two later there were Alexandrian
critics who denied that the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ could have come from
the same author. But modern critics have assailed the integrity of the two
great poems themselves. They have based their theories partly on the
improbability of such long poems being composed and transmitted before
writing had come into general use (an argument which has lost its force owing
to recent discoveries of early writing), and partly on the apparent
repetitions, interpolations, and discrepancies, which are supposed to have
been
[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF ATHENA AT SUNIUM (CAPE
COLONNA)
Distant view over the hills.]
due either to the accidents
of compilation or to the need for adaptation to suit the varying tastes of
readers in different parts of the Greek world. Perhaps the strongest proof of
composite authorship is to be found in the different stages of civilisation
and religion which are discernible in different parts of the poetry, and the
marked inconsistencies in certain of the leading characters. It is also
very significant that Mount Olympus, the dwelling of the gods, is at one
time the snow-clad mountain in the north which still bears that name, and
in other and later passages is a bright and gladsome region, free from
rain or snow or stormy wind. It is now generally agreed that the nucleus
of the _Iliad_ was a series of ancient lays concerning Achilles,
derived from Northern Greece, and moulded by Æolic art, while the remainder
of the poem and the bulk of the _Odyssey_ were of a considerably
later date, and came from an Ionic source. The poems as a whole were
probably touched up and put into their present form by some one living on
the coast of Asia Minor (perhaps at Smyrna, the meeting-place of Æolic
and Ionic traditions), who sang of the glories of a by-gone age with
the patriotic pride of a colonial. Whether his name was Homer is a
different question, for it is quite possible the word may have been, as
some maintain, a common term, meaning “compiler.” It is well to remember
that the “blind bard who dwelt in rocky Chios,” so often identified
with Homer since Thucydides set the example, is merely the
description applied to himself by the writer of the Hymn to the Delian
Apollo, whom no one now believes to have been the author of the _Iliad_ or
the _Odyssey_. We know that the Great Unknown, whoever he may have been,
was succeeded by the Homeridæ of Chios, and these again, by the Rhapsodes
or professional reciters, whom we come across in the pages of Plato
and Xenophon.
Another subject of controversy has been as to whether
the Homeric narratives have a historic basis to rest upon. Some have gone so
far as to doubt whether the Trojan War ever took place; and it has
been suggested that many of the stories in the _Iliad_ are due to
solar myths. But the excavations of Schliemann at Ilium and Mycenæ have
rather discredited such scepticism; and the recent explorer already
mentioned (Berard), who has sailed over the course which appears to have
been taken by Odysseus,--extending from Troy to Gibraltar,--has found
the topographical and maritime allusions so accurate as to come to
the conclusion that the poet must have had the benefit of some ancient
book of reference, corresponding to the _Pilot’s Guide_, and drawn up in
all probability by the Phœnicians, who were masters of the
Mediterranean before the Greeks. But while the main thread of the narrative
in the _Odyssey_ may be historical, the poet has worked into it many
fanciful legends, like those to be found in the literature of many
nations. Indeed the story of Odysseus’ adventures as a whole is perhaps no
more historical than the tale of Robinson Crusoe, created by Defoe out of
the experience of Alexander Selkirk on the island of Juan
Fernandez.
[Illustration: SUNSET FROM THE NORTH-EAST CORNER OF THE
ACROPOLIS
To the left, a bit of the east front of the Parthenon; to the
right, the precipitous north side of the Acropolis; in the middle distance
the Erechtheum, showing all three of its porticoes; in shadow, between
the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the upper part of the Propylæa].
No
criticism, however, can alter the fact that we have in the _Odyssey_ some of
the most charming pictures of social and domestic life that are to be found
in any literature, touched up with a colouring of the strangest old-world
romance, and deriving lustre from a religion which, however defective from an
ethical point of view, was wedded to an imagination so rich and powerful as
almost to efface in the mind of the reader the distinction between the
natural and the supernatural.
CHAPTER II
DELPHI AND
ITS ORACLE
After entering the Gulf of Corinth the first port at which
the steamers touch is Patras, the largest city in the Peloponnesus, with
about 40,000 inhabitants,--looking across to Missolonghi on the northern
shore, where Byron died and where his heart is buried. The only notable thing
about Patras in pre-Christian times was its inclusion in the Achæan
League, that last outburst of the Hellenic love of independence. In modern
times it has had the distinction to be the first city to raise the
national flag in the War of Liberation (1821). Its patron saint is St.
Andrew, who has a cathedral dedicated to him, with a crypt in which his
bones are said to have their resting-place. It is a prosperous and
well-built city, with a picturesque country behind it, rich in vines and
olives, and in front of it the inland sea which is the great highway of
Greek commerce. But its chief interest for the traveller is the fact that
it is the place at which arrangements can best be made for visiting
Delphi and Olympia, two of the most attractive spots in Greece.
Delphi
is situated on the mainland. To reach it the traveller has to sail across
from Patras to Itea, a small port at the head of the famous Crisæan Gulf. The
drive from Itea to Delphi on a fine April day is one of the finest in the
world. For a few miles you hold northward along the plain, passing through a
long forest of olive trees, with gnarled and twisted trunks, the fresh leaves
glistening in the sun and changing colour in the breeze, shafts of glowing
light shooting through the branches. In the distance rise hills on hills,
crowned by the snowy summit of Parnassus. But it is not till you leave the
plain and turn to the right, slowly ascending by a zigzag route to the
village of Chryso, the ancient Crisa, that you begin to realise the sublimity
of the surroundings. The solemn grandeur of the mountains is above you.
Below lies the fertile plain, which was dedicated to Apollo and became
the scene of the Pythian Games when they reached their full development.
As you look down, the olive wood presents a new appearance and seems
to wind, like a great river of oil, towards the sea, whose
rock-bound coast, in the opening made by the bay at which you landed, shows
the pink, white, and blue houses of Itea sparkling in the sun. The Gulf
of Corinth, of which you can only catch glimpses now and then, might
pass for a great lake, bordered by the hills of Achaia in the south,
and surmounted in the far distance by the glittering summits of
Erymanthus and Cyllene, which rise to a height of 7000 or 8000 feet. In the
course of the journey you may often come upon a mass of flowers,
sometimes covering the slope on the roadside, sometimes running into the
field and mingling with the ripe corn, which the rustics are reaping with
the old-fashioned hook. The most conspicuous and abundant of all the
flowers is the large scarlet poppy, which might be counted by the thousand,
and often spreads over a great extent of ground. After passing Crisa,
almost the only signs of life we saw on the way were flocks of black goats
with their tinkling bells, and a long string of heavy-laden camels,
with their young ones running by their side, moving along in
solemn procession from the east.
As we approached Delphi, the view
presented sterner outlines and a wider range, embracing the dales and gorges
of the Pleistus valley, and the rugged hills of Cirphis on the south, as well
as the mighty range of Parnassus, with its outlying spurs and precipices. Of
these the most remarkable and the most celebrated are the Phædriadæ or
shining peaks, overshadowing the ancient sanctuary of Apollo, which was for
centuries the religious centre of the Greek world, as the Vatican was to
mediæval Christendom. The world-wide influence exerted by the Delphian oracle
is one of the most interesting facts in all history. It was
characteristic of the Hellenic as compared with the Hebrew mind that the
oracle should hold such a prominent place in the national religion: for it
was a religion dominated by the imagination rather than the conscience. At
the same time it should not be forgotten that, until its decadence,
the oracle was more frequently consulted
[Illustration: DELPHI FROM
ITEA
This drawing indicates in a general way the position of Delphi
with regard to the plain of Cirrha below and the snowclad summit of
Parnassos above. On the left is the opening of the gorge of the Pleistos.
Just above where it disappears from view, to the right, the new
village called Delphi is visible on the slope of the mountain in front of
the great precipices of the Castalian Gorge. Ancient Delphi lies out
of sight in the hollow immediately behind the new village, and between
it and the Castalian cliffs.]
for guidance in the practical affairs of
life than merely to gratify curiosity as to future events. The Delphian
oracle originated, no doubt, in the superstitious awe which the place
inspired as the supposed centre of the earth, possessed of mysterious
cavities by which it was believed possible to hold communication with the
dead. In the earliest times it was connected with the worship of the
earth-goddess Gæa or Gē, who sheltered the dead in her bosom. Later, the
presiding deity was Themis, the goddess of law and order in the natural
world. But during the whole historical period Apollo was the source of
inspiration, the god of light and the highest interpreter of the divine will.
During the three winter months Dionysus reigned, in the absence of
Apollo.
The reverence in which the oracle was held, even in the most
enlightened times, was largely due to the wisdom and prudence of the
priests--five in number--who belonged to the noblest Delphian families and
held office for life. They were brought into contact with leading men who
came to consult the oracle from all parts of the Greek-speaking world,--men
like Lycurgus and Solon and Socrates and Xenophon and Alexander
the Great,--and they appear to have been on terms of intimacy with
such national poets as Hesiod and Pindar and Æschylus. Pindar’s iron
chair was carefully preserved in the sacred precincts, and the priest
of Apollo cried nightly as he closed the temple, “Let Pindar the poet go
in unto the supper of the gods.”
The priests put their own
interpretations on the ecstatic utterances of the prophetess, which she
delivered in their hearing and in the presence of the inquirer after she had
drunk the holy water, chewed the laurel-leaf, and mounted the tripod to
inhale the narcotic vapour which arose from the chasm beneath. These
interpretations they embodied in hexameter verses, generally disappointing
from a poetical point of view, considering the auspices under which they were
delivered, and frequently ambiguous in their terms, when it did not seem
advisable for the oracle to commit itself to a definite opinion. One of the
best known and most interesting cases of this sort was the answer given to
Crœsus, King of Sardis, when he was deliberating whether he ought to go to
war with Persia. Before inquiring on so important a point he resolved to test
all the chief oracles, six in number, by asking each of them through
a special messenger to say what he was doing on a specified day, on
which the question was to be put. The oracle that best stood the test
was Delphi, and Crœsus proceeded to ask advice on the momentous
question about which he was so anxious, bestowing on the temple of Apollo at
the same time magnificent gifts of solid gold and silver, and
immense offerings for sacrifice. The answer was that if he went to war
with Persia he would destroy a great empire, which he at once took in
a favourable sense. He was defeated, however, and Cyrus became master
of his city and kingdom, thus fulfilling the oracle in an unexpected
sense. He would have been put to death by his conqueror had it not been
that when he lay bound upon a funeral pile, which had been already
kindled, his exclamations led Cyrus to inquire what he was speaking of, and
on hearing of Solon’s warning as to the instability of human
greatness, which the fallen monarch had been calling to mind, Cyrus gave
orders that Crœsus should be at once released. The flames had taken
such hold of the wood, however, that he would still have perished if
Apollo had not heard his prayers and sent a heavy shower of rain,
which extinguished the fire. The disappointment of his hopes gave such a
shock to Crœsus’ faith that, by the leave of Cyrus, he sent to Delphi
the chains in which he had been bound to the pile, with a message asking
if that was the way in which Apollo treated his faithful votaries. In
the reply he was reminded that Apollo had saved his life, and was told
that he had not been careful enough in his interpretation of the oracle,
and that it had been impossible any longer to avert the doom which rested
on him as the fifth in descent from an ancestor who had incurred the
divine wrath by the murder of his master and the usurpation of his
throne.
With one exception--the encouragement which it gave on certain
rare occasions to human sacrifice--the general influence of the oracle
was salutary, from a social and political as well as an ethical point
of view. On the walls of the temple were inscribed some of the sayings
of the wise men of Greece, such as “Know thyself,” “Nothing to excess.”
The oracle did much for the protection of rights where no legal sanction
was available. It checked blood-feuds, and gave its sanction to
the purification and pardon of those who had committed homicide
under extenuating circumstances. It could even dispense with ritual
observance altogether where there was no real guilt. For example, to a good
man who had slain his friend in defending him against robbers, and had fled
to the sanctuary in great distress of mind, its answer was: “Thou
didst slay thy friend striving to save his life; go hence, thou art purer
than thou wert before.” It confirmed the sanctity of oaths. Herodotus gives
a striking instance of its high standard of morality when, in answer to
an inquirer who asked whether by repudiating his oath he might claim
a large sum of money which had been deposited with him, the
prophetess declared that to tempt the god as he had done and to commit the
crime was the same thing, and that the divine judgment would descend on
him and on his house. For “there is a nameless son of Perjury, who
has neither hands nor feet; he pursues swiftly, until he seizes and
destroys the whole race and all the house.” It also rendered good service,
as many inscriptions show, in connection with the emancipation of
slaves, whose deposits it took care of, until a sufficient sum was available
for the purchase of their freedom from their masters, who were
interdicted from making any further claim upon their services. Besides the
light and leading which the oracle afforded to some of the early lawgivers
of Greece, and the wise counsels which it gave on questions of peace
or war, it was specially useful in advising cities on all projects of
colonisation. |
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